Writing

100 Words You Should Know

As an adult English speaker, you’re expected to have an extensive vocabulary that includes some words that are seldom used in conversational English. You should also be striving to improve your vocabulary. While all these lists are somewhat subjective, they’re a good way to see how good your current vocabulary happens to be, and work on some words you may not know. See how you measure up to this list of 100 intermediate to advanced vocabulary words every adult should know.

Just to make things more interesting, I’ve also peppered a few rather obscure words into the mix, and even though these may rarely be used, they’ll make you an even more dangerous Scrabble player, crossword whizz or other word game player than you already are. Enjoy!

1. Acquiesce

This word means that a person has agreed or assented either verbally or tacitly to something. Even when it is well understood, this word is often misspelled.

2. Aberration

Sometimes, it’s good to be different, but the word “aberration” describes an unwelcome oddity. So, if someone accuses you of aberrant behavior, they aren’t complimenting your originality.

3. Abjure

If you solemnly renounce something, you have abjured it. The word is used in baptism ceremonies in certain churches. The person being baptized declares that he or she abjures Satan and all his works.

4. Abrogate

Abrogation is a situation in which formal or legal measures are taken to do away with something. This would usually be a law or a formal rule that is repealed or temporarily suspended.

5. Acronym

This should have been an easy one for lovers of language. An acronym is an abbreviation consisting of letters. For example, U.S.A for United States of America.

6. Anachronism

I’m sure you will have encountered a few anachronisms during your life. An anachronism is something that is out of date and no longer relevant to the times. If you want to argue that something has lost its relevance by not changing with the times, you can describe it as being anachronistic or an anachronism.

7. Anathema

No, it’s not a rather nice sounding girl’s name. It describes something that you vehemently dislike to the point of total rejection. For example: “He is an atheist; all forms of religion are anathema to him.”

8. Antebellum

A thing that is described as “antebellum” was conceived or constructed prior to an important war. The plantation era before the American Civil War is sometimes referred to as the antebellum era, but the word can apply to anything that preceded a major war.

9. Anthropogenic

Anything that has been caused by human interventions is anthropogenic. The word is usually used in the context of environmental degradation and pollution. Climate change, for example, could be described as an anthropogenic phenomenon.

10. Antithesis

Something or someone that is the diametric opposite of something else. “He was the antithesis of the frivolous millionaire playboy,” would imply that the person was the opposite of what one expect from a happy-go-lucky millionaire. Perhaps he was very serious about current issues, or didn’t like wasting money on status symbols.

11. Assonance

This is the sound a donkey makes. Alright, I’m kidding again, but it does have something to do with sound. It is a technique often used in creative writing and poetry in which similar sounding (but not necessarily rhyming) words are used in close proximity to one another.

12. Benchmarking

Benchmarking involves selecting a certain state as being the norm against which other, similar things will be compared. For example, in vegetation surveys, undisturbed nature would be seen as the benchmark against which vegetation would be evaluated.

13. Bellicose

This is a lovely word for describing people who are aggressive and even willing to fight over an issue. As you can imagine, bellicosity and politics often go hand in hand!

14. Bowdlerize

This is a form of censorship that not only removes the portions of text some might consider risqué, but also weakens the work. The original Bowdler, published an expurgated version of Shakespeare. “Nothing is added to the original text; but those words and expressions omitted which cannot with propriety be read aloud in a family,” he wrote, blithely unaware that his 1818 work would turn his name into a byword for literary slaughter.

15. Chicanery

“Chicanery” alludes to the use of dirty tricks in the financial, political or legal world. If you are ever accused of it, know that you are in deep trouble!

16. Chthonic

You really won’t see this word in everyday use, but it’s a killer if you’re into word games! It refers to caves or the underworld. It is a synonym for the more well-known “subterranean” .

17. Cerulean

You will no doubt have read about cerulean waters or skies and assumed that they were blue. You are right. Specifically, the word refers to a deep, sky-blue.

18. Circumspect

If you are behaving with circumspection, you are watchful, wary or unwilling to take risks. One could almost say it was an antonym or opposite for “bellicose”!

19. Circumlocution

Have you ever talked to someone who explains things in a roundabout way? They are guilty of circumlocution. They literally “talk around” a subject instead of being specific and concise.

20. Cogent

The person who is guilty of circumlocution, should try to be more cogent. In other words, they should be clear, logical and convincing. When you present arguments, you will strive for cogency.

21. Colloquial

This is the kind of language we use every day. It is the “spoken” form of a language, and is not appropriate when you are writing a formal text. That doesn’t mean that colloquial words are wrong or bad. They are simply informal.

22. Conundrum

A conundrum could simply be a riddle, but it is also used to describe any puzzling or difficult question.

23. Crepuscular

This lovely word is used to describe things that resemble or relate to twilight. In its simplest form, it is used to describe creatures that become active at twilight, but I’m sure you know a few people like that too!

24. Deleterious

If something has harmful effects, they can be described as “deleterious effects.” You’ll often find this word being used in medical texts and in psychology. “Harmful” is just as good, but this word is ever so much weightier!

25. Depredation

My mom used to use this word to describe my brother’s activities in the pantry. It describes an act of attack or plunder. Judging from the state of the grocery cupboard once my brother was finished, my mom described what he’d been up to very well.

26. Didactic

In its simplest context, this word describes something that was designed to teach a lesson. For example, a didactic story would have a strong lesson to teach. However, the word can also be used negatively to describe someone who is preachy and patronizing.

27. Egregious

Think of all the words that mean “terribly bad or shocking;” that’s what “egregious” means. Never did a difficult-seeming word have a simpler definition!

28. Enervate

If you are feeling drained, weakened and tired out, you have probably been through some sort of enervating experience. There are good types of tiredness, but this is not one of them.

29. Enfranchise

This means giving people freedom or the right to vote. Nowadays, we worry about disenfranchisement, a situation in which rights or freedoms are taken away.

30. Entomophagy

This word is quite rarely used, but if we were to have a famine, or if certain exotic dishes became popular, we might need it. It means “the eating of insects,” and although it generally applies to animals and birds, there are plenty of people who eat insects as a matter of course! Any word with the suffix “phagy” or “phagous” refers to what an organism eats.

31. Epiphany

An epiphany is an “Aha!” moment, but the word comes from the Christian festival celebrating the revelation of Christ to the magi. If you have a life-changing realization, it could be described as an epiphany.

32. Epitome

A perfect example of something epitomizes it. “Her life so far is the epitome of the American Dream,” makes me think, “Wow, I want one just like it!”

33. Eschatology

A lot of people discuss this quite heatedly without knowing the right word for it. It is a religious doctrine that deals with death, judgement, and what happens to the soul after death. And in case you were wondering – I didn’t know this word before I researched this article, but I thought we needed a few challenges.

34. Eschew

Here’s a useful little word that says more than it seems to. For example, you could say someone doesn’t exercise, but if you say, “He eschewed exercise,” it implies a stronger and more deliberate aversion.

35. Evanescent

If you have literary ambitions, this beautiful word is worth having in your vocabulary. It refers to something that is transitory, or that disappears or fades rapidly.

36. Existential

The word structure says it all. It describes something to do with the nature of existence. If you’re into philosophy, you probably use this word a lot.

37. Exponential

There is a mathematical description of exponents and what can be regarded as “exponential.” I’m not going to go into it here. We more often hear of it in a context that implies rapidly increasing growth. When you hear it, don’t just trust it. Ask for the figures.

38. Facetious

This is one of my all-time favorite words, and I have frequently been accused of facetiousness. It means making inappropriate jokes or taking serious situations too lightly. I wouldn’t say it’s always a good thing, but sometimes, it helps, because there are times when we are way too serious about unimportant things.

39. Fascism

What is it? It sounds great in political arguments, and the word is often bandied about. It is a type of nationalism that sprang up in Europe in the 1920’s, and it led to some pretty authoritarian governments that were known for their right-wing views and intolerance. If you want to know more about the deeper implications of fascism, read some history.

40. Fatuous

A fatuous comment is silly, inane, or just plain stupid. Save this remark for someone who really deserves it, and serve it up cold.

41. Fiduciary

If you encounter this word, it will be in a legal context. It is the term used to describe a trustee who takes care of assets on behalf of one or more beneficiaries.

42. Filibuster

The filibuster is a person who uses a dirty, time-wasting trick to hold up a legislative decision. Without breaking any rules, the filibuster speaks at great length without saying anything useful. The word comes from the old English for “pirate,” and it is not a good thing to be.

43. Fulminate

Let’s use an example: your teacher tells the class that the holiday assignment is a 10,000-word essay. After class, everyone discusses how furious they are, how unfair it is, and so on. They are, in fact, fulminating.

44. Hegemony

Ever since people first got together to live in cities, there have been groups of citizens with differing cultural or social backgrounds. When one group politically dominates all the others, it is called a “hegemony,” and the term can be applied to any form of government that fits the description.

45. Heuristic

If someone once helped you to work something out for yourself, he or she used a heuristic teaching method. You could call it “hands on” learning, but nobody shows you what to do. They just show you how to figure it out, and you get to feel great when you get it right.

46. Holistic

The simplest definition for this would be to say that holism considers various factors that influence each other, and not just one factor, influence or symptom in isolation. The term is most commonly used in philosophy and medicine, but it is getting quite commercialized, and is sometimes used elsewhere too.

47. Homonym

When two words are spelled the same, are pronounced the same, but have different meanings, they are homonyms. For instance, “The man standing beside the pole is a Pole.”

48. Hubris

In Greek mythology, hubris was a state in which mankind defied the gods or thought itself better than the gods. Dreadful consequences predictably followed. Today, it means excessive pride or confidence that could lead to terrible consequences.

49. Incisive

Have you ever tried to explain how you feel about something at length only for your listener to sum it all up in a sentence or two? That’s incisive thinking. It gets to the heart of the matter quickly, showing great insight.

50. Incognito

Are you mysterious? Then you may like being incognito – using another identity or concealing your own identity in some other way.

51. Inculcate

This means teaching someone a principle or habit in such a way that the lesson is fully ingrained and adopted.

52. Interpolate

Interpolating something means inserting it between fixed points. The word is often used to indicate that something has been added to a book or text. Perhaps there are images, or perhaps a third party has added information. It can also be an interruption when someone is talking.

53. Irony

Too easy? Nevertheless, this word is often incorrectly used. Irony means saying the opposite of what you mean for effect. Sometimes, events can be ironic for the same reason: they seem to contradict each other. Many people confuse it with sarcasm.

54. Juxtaposition

When two contrasting situations or thoughts are compared for effect, we have a juxtaposition. It’s a useful technique in both creative and factual writing.

55. Jejune

If someone presents you with a naïve point of view, seems to be oversimplifying, or has only superficial knowledge, you can use this word, both to describe their efforts, and to baffle them.

56. Lionize

When you treat someone as if they were a celebrity, then you are lionizing them. Sometimes, we do this out of genuine respect for what they do, but sometimes, people do it to gain favor.

57. Lucubration

The word “lucubration” could be used to indicate something that has been given a lot of study and deep thought, but it’s also a rather rude way of describing a piece of writing that seems terribly pedantic and overelaborate.

58. Malapropism

The word “malapropism” was coined thanks to a 1755 play by Richard Sheridan. Mrs. Malaprop would often replace words with similar sounding ones with amusing results. If you talk about having “danced the flamingo” you are guilty of a malapropism.

59. Magnanimous

When someone is very generous or forgiving to someone in a less powerful positon, you can call him or her “magnanimous.” It’s a form of generosity that isn’t really necessary, but that shows kindness.

60. Mnemonic

When you use a combination of letters, a rhyme, or a set of associated things to remember a list of names or facts, you are using mnemonics.

61. Motif

A motif could be something as simple as a design on a Tee shirt, or it can be a theme in writing or music. A leitmotif is a “leading motif” that is one of several motifs, but is dominant. In music, it could be a theme tune associated with a particular character.

62. Moiety

In anthropology, this term relates to the groups into which people are divided during important rituals, but it has also come to mean a share, particularly a lesser one.

63. Nihilism

“Nothing matters, everything is trivial, even existence is questionable and could be an illusion. There is no God, and nothing has any importance.” If this depressing philosophy appeals to you, you are a nihilist.

64. Nomenclature

A nomenclature is a system designed for naming things. It could be a set of terminology, a term, or it could refer to a scientific naming system such as that used to identify all living things with two Latin names.

65. Nemesis

You don’t want to meet this person or circumstance. It is an “inescapable agent” that leads to your downfall.

66. Obfuscate

Scenario: you have just been to class. Your teacher has explained something at length in terms that have left you totally confused. Scenario two: you ask a friend why they did something you don’t quite approve of, and they give you a long story that leaves you feeling baffled. Words can be used to clarify, or they can be used to obfuscate facts.

67. Obsequious

People are bowing and scraping and offering every possible tribute to someone in power. You have a feeling they’re being obsequious because of the servile degree of attention they are giving.

68. Oligarchy

A small group of people with very similar interests have absolute control over the destiny of a country or an institution. Does that sound scary? Now you know what to call it!

69. Onomatopoeia

“Bang! Crash! Zoink. Kerflabaflabaflaba!” Words that are meant to imitate sounds are examples of onomatopoeia.

70. Ontology

What is the metaphysical nature of being? Do you have an opinion? That’s ontology! Don’t even ask me about mine…

71. Orthography

How are words spelled? That’s orthography right there!

72. Oxymoron

I’m sure you know a few phrases that are contradictions in terms. Some say that “military intelligence” is one of them. Which oxymoron is your favorite?

73. Paradigm

If you go into business, you will hear this word rather a lot. It means a model that governs the way things are done, and they’ll usually be telling you that you need to shift it, or that there is a new one.

74. Paucity

When there is too little of anything, you are suffering a paucity of it. It’s most often used in relation to facts, but it works just as well and even more uncomfortably with funds.

75. Pecuniary

How remarkable that this word should follow my last incisive remark! Pecuniary considerations are about money. Please do not use them as the sole basis for choosing a career. You will be unhappy, but will have achieved pecuniary gain.

76. Pedantic

Sometimes, it’s good to be fussy or finicky about the way you present information, but if you go too far with it, people will call you “pedantic.”

77. Pedagogy

Pedagogy is teaching, and a pedagogue is a teacher, but this old-fashioned word is often used negatively to describe someone who teaches rather boringly.

78. Pejorative

If you’re inclined to disapprove or disparage something, you are being pejorative. Pejorative words express disapproval.

79. Phonemes

Phonemes are letters that distinguish very similar words from one another. For instance, “pad, pat, bad and bat” are distinguished from each other by phonemes.

80. Plagiarism

As a student, you need to understand plagiarism and know how to avoid it. If you were to copy whole passages from someone else’s work, that’s plagiarism. Of course, plagiarism is something to be avoided whenever you are supposed to be producing original work.

81. Proletariat

If you are an average working class person, you are a member of the proletariat. The word was extensively used in Marxist philosophy, but now it’s fair game for anyone to use.

82. Prolix

When someone calls your written work “prolix,” you should not congratulate yourself. It means you have presented it in an overly complicated, wordy, or rambling fashion. It’s also a great scrabble word. Just imagine the score if you hit “triple word score” with it!

83. Pusillanimous

Cowards, the lily-livered and the generally timid may be deserving of a suitably disparaging adjective. This is it.

84. Quotidian

You could use this word to describe something that is mundane or that happens every day. If you’re looking for a synonym, try “everyday” for size. In medicine, it is used to describe a particularly nasty form of malaria.

85. Reify

Never let it be said that we only looked at long words. This one means turning something abstract into something more real and easier to understand.

86. Rubric

There are three meanings for this word. It could be a statement of purpose or function, a simple heading at the top of a document, or a note in a liturgical book indicating how a ceremony should be performed.

87. Sanguine

I like people with a sanguine disposition. They are upbeat and optimistic. You can, for example, be sanguine about the future, your economic prospects, and so on. Of course, that doesn’t necessarily mean you are being realistic!

88. Scurrilous

Being scurrilous could mean everything from being humorously insulting to being downright libelous and spreading nasty rumors.

89. Sesquipedalian

What could be better than a really long word to describe the use of long words? I have to admit, this is one of my favorites, simply because it seems so appropriate, and rather funny.

90. Soliloquy

Nowadays, if you were to talk to yourself about what your thoughts and feelings, people would think you had gone mad. Nevertheless, the soliloquy has been widely used in drama to give audiences an insight into the character’s thoughts.

91. Tautology

There are two ways to use this word. A tautology could be an unnecessary repetition – repeating the same idea using different words. It could also be used to describe logic that is undeniably correct and proves a truth.

92. Temerity

When you need a word to describe an action that is outrageously cheeky or audacious, this word is perfect for the job, “He had the temerity to decide I wouldn’t mind him copying my work.”

93. Ubiquitous

Anything that is everywhere to be found or seems to be so is “ubiquitous.” “Text speak is becoming so ubiquitous that it may soon be accepted in business letters.”

94. Umami

Your tongue can identify a number of flavors. Umami is a meaty flavor that is not sweet, sour, or salty.

95. Vernacular

The language you speak at home, or the one spoken by a specific group of people in a country or region is its vernacular language. It also refers to architecture that focuses on what is functional.

96. Verisimilitude

Is something real? Is it true? Are you unsure? Then you are doubting its verisimilitude. This word is handy because it combines the concepts of truth and reality.

97. Vitriolic

When people are vitriolic, I either find it very funny (which they don’t intend) or annoying. Vitriolic speech or writing is bitter, caustic and acerbic.

98. Ultracrepidarian

Do you know someone who always has advice for you no matter how little knowledge he or she has? Now you have the right word to describe this person!

99. Unctuous

It’s usually very nice when people admire you, but sometimes you get the feeling that a person is being oily or insincere, and just wants to get into your good books. When this happens, you have just been the object of unctuous behavior.

100. Uxorious

When a man is overly submissive towards his wife, he can be described as “uxorious.” Of course, she might just say that’s just how it should be!

And here are four bonus words:

101. Vacuity

“I admire your vacuity,” he said. “Why, thank you,” she replied, proving the point. Vacuity is empty-headedness and a lack of intelligence.

102. Xeric

Generally, when we see the prefix “Xero” or “Xer” we can associate the word that it introduces with something very dry. A xeric life form can tolerate, and even prefers very dry conditions, and a xerophyte, is a plant that tolerates extremely dry environments.

103. Zymurgy

This is a very helpful scrabble word, but what does it mean? Zymurgy is the art of brewing, wine-making or distilling.

104. Zephyr

A zephyr is a pleasant, light breeze that you’d welcome on a hot summer day. “A passing zephyr rustled through the treetops.” Ah! Poetic!

What Is a Subordinating Conjunction?

A subordinating conjunction (also called subordinate conjunction) links two particular parts of a sentence: a dependent and an independent clause. When a sentence has these two elements, it’s classified as complex. Here is an example of a dependent clause.

If you dare to hit me,

Hey, don’t you want to know what’s going to happen next? Yes, because the idea is incomplete. It depends on the next clause to finish it… ,I will call Mommy for help!

This is the independent clause that finishes the sentence. It’s a whole statement that can stand on its own as a sentence; that’s why it’s independent. You can also see that “if” begins the dependent clause. That’s the subordinating conjunction. It can either come at the start or the end of the dependent clause. When it’s first, you always have a comma after the clause.

When I get my revenge,
Although I’m sorry I hit you,
After we had the fight,
Until we kiss and make up,
Whenever you’re ready to apologize,

All the underlined words are subordinating conjunctions. Common examples of these include: after, although, as, as soon as, because, before, by the time, even if, even though, if, in case, in order that, once, provided that, rather than, since, so that, than, that, though, unless, until, when, whenever, where, whereas, wherever, whether, whether or not, while, why.

You can see a subordinating conjunction sometimes includes two or three words, so be careful not to think of it as a single word.

The function of this part of speech is to establish a condition. It could be a time, a place, a reason, or something else, but there is some type of condition being given.

When I get my revenge, (you’re talking about a future event you want to happen)
After we had the fight, (this is a past time)
Until we kiss and make up, (this is a possible future event)

Again, it’s important to see these are all unfinished statements. They need the independent clause to form a proper sentence.

Because English varies from one English-speaking country to another, this rule is not followed much in Great Britain. Therefore, the British might consider this to be correct:

After Johnny and Susie fought they agreed to be peaceful.

But what happens in a case like this?

After Johnny ate Susie decided to have a meal too.

The sentence appears to say that “Johnny ate Susie”! So to avoid a misunderstanding (and laughter), it should always be:

After Johnny ate, Susie decided to have a meal too.

Using the comma teaches you better habits and prevents you from writing ambiguous and confusing sentences.

It’s also important to note when a subordinate falls in the middle of a sentence, it normally does not have a comma before it.

Johnny will go if Susie promises not to hit him.
Johnny won’t go even though Susie promised to be good.
Johnny will go provided that Susie stays home.

Sometimes there’s a natural pause before the subordinating conjunction, so having a comma makes sense.

We should kiss and make up, if only to keep our cousins from gossiping about us.

One other situation where a comma is required occurs with “because” and a negative dependent clause.

Don’t go because Susie doesn’t want you to.

Does this sentence mean the same as the following?

Because Susie doesn’t want you to, don’t go.

The two probably have the same meaning; but what if the speaker really means this?

Don’t go because Susie doesn’t want you to; instead, don’t go because you don’t want to.

If this is what he means, the first sentence should stay unchanged. But if he means

Because Susie doesn’t want you to, don’t go.

Then he should write

Don’t go, because Susie doesn’t want you to.

This is tricky, but you won’t find this situation very often.

The Difference Between It’s and Its

Before you begin to feel bad about not knowing when to use “it’s” as opposed to “its,” I have a confession to make. There was a time long, long ago, in a galaxy very like this one, when I didn’t know the difference either!

In my defense, it is really easy to get confused. Generally speaking, you would use an apostrophe for omitted letters (e.g. when you say “what’s” instead of “what is”) as well as for possessives (“John’s” meaning that something belongs to John). To make it even more confusing, you could say “John’s in the backyard,” and that would be an abbreviation of “John is.” Both the possessive form and the contraction get the apostrophe.

But there is a special rule that applies to the word “it.” Sometimes, you’d use the apostrophe and that would be correct, and other times, it would be derisively referred to as a “grocers’ apostrophe.”

What’s a Grocer’s Apostrophe?

A grocers’ apostrophe is an apostrophe that is used in the wrong place. Have you ever seen signage bearing the information “Banana’s on special today?” That’s a genuine grocer’s apostrophe in action. As you probably know, the plural of “banana” is “bananas.” No apostrophe is needed. You could say “The banana’s skin was yellow,” because you are now using the possessive form. The skin belonging to the banana was yellow.

Just as you may feel a little superior when you see that “banana’s” are on special, so teachers and other nit-picky people like bosses and… well… me… would smirk when they see an “it’s” instead of an “its.” Let’s get into the nitty-gritty of which one to use in what circumstances. It’s actually quite logical. If you remember one important fact, you’ll never get it wrong again.

Only Use the Apostrophe for the Contraction

You only use the apostrophe for the contraction of “it is” and sometimes, “it has.” Can you remember this? Then you’re good to go already. In contractions, letters are omitted, and we indicate the missing letter with an apostrophe. Examples of contractions include:

It’s – It is
What’s – What is
Don’t – Do not
Won’t – Will not
She’ll – She will

And so on, and so on. The apostrophe is used to show the word is a contraction, and in the case of the word “it,” it’s the only time you’ll use an apostrophe.

Never Use the Apostrophe For “Belonging to” It

Usually, you’d use the apostrophe for possessives too, but not in this case.

John’s scarf got tangled in Mary’s.
The children’s toys were all broken.
The cat’s toy is under the sofa.
The business’ logo is very smart.

Use the word “it”, however, and the “belonging to” form has no apostrophe.

The cat played with its toy.
Its paint is peeling.
Its logo is unimaginative.

How Can You Know for Sure When to Use the Apostrophe?

It’s easy! If you can extend “it’s” into “it is” or “it has,” then the apostrophe is completely correct. Try it with the possessive, and it obviously won’t work. Another way to remember is to think about the words “his” or “hers.” Neither of these words has an apostrophe either. “Its” is simply the form of “his” or “hers” you would use when talking about something that’s not a person.

That’s because the words “its,” “his” and “hers” are not actually nouns. They are pronouns. That isn’t to say you would never use an apostrophe with a pronoun, but it does help a little since pronouns with apostrophes showing possession are relatively rare. Using them with possessive pronouns (and “its” is a possessive pronoun, just like “his,” “hers,” “yours,” or “theirs”) would be redundant because the very nature of the word shows possession.

Now you have the more complicated explanation, too. But don’t worry about it too much. Simply remember when you refer to something belonging to an “it,” no apostrophe is used. Do that, and you’ll never make the common writing mistake of adding an apostrophe to “it” when it’s unnecessary.

Former vs Latter with Examples

Here’s a nice easy one to remember the difference between the words former and latter. Do you see the “for” in “former”? Use it to tell you the thing you’re talking about came before another thing that you mentioned.

Do you see the “latte” in “latter”? That means you should have a cup of coffee! OK. Kidding, but it sounds a lot like “later” doesn’t it? That tells you that the thing you’re referring to came later than, or after something else.

Former and Latter in Action

Let’s make these words jump through some hoops!

“It was raining, and there was lightening in the air. Mary didn’t mind the former problem, but the latter one troubled her because she was afraid of thunder.”

“You need to have a lot of determination to get through college, and you have to be ready to do a lot of hard work. If I were to rate these two, I’d say the latter point is the most important to your success.”

“If I had to choose between good looks and intelligence, I think I’d go for the former advantage!” (Silly you!)

“I love John Keats and William Shakespeare, but the latter seems to have more applicability to today’s word.”

Sometimes, more than two things will be mentioned, with “latter” used to denote what is last. Using “former” in this context may be confusing because it doesn’t really tell you which of the items that came first you’re referring to.

“There were apples, pears, oranges and grapes on the table, but it was the latter that made Joan’s mouth water!”

“There were apples, pears, oranges and grapes on the table, but the former of these fruits seemed the most appealing.” See what I mean? We can assume Joan found the apples appealing, but with a list such as this, we can’t be sure. It would be better to just say what we meant and get it over with! Joan found the apples appealing. The End.

Should You Use Former and Latter?

To tell you the truth, using words like “former” or “latter” can make your reader go back to reread the first part of a sentence, and that isn’t a great strategy. It’s cumbersome! And even if you change things around and warn people to look out for the former or latter point before stating them, it sounds a little pompous. Even in business writing, coming across as a person who is easy to understand and communicate with is an advantage.

So you could start by warning people to look out for the first or second thing you say, but there are easier and more comfortable ways to do it. For instance:

“Which of these options do you prefer, the former, or the latter?”

Versus

“Choose one of these two options.”

“Which of these two options would you prefer, the first or the second?”

There’s nothing actually wrong with using “former” and “latter,” but to be honest with you, I never do. It’s rather archaic, even though the two words are still in use, and there just seem to be easier ways to say things. I mean, when’s the last time you use either of these words in a conversation with a friend? I thought so!

Words to read and understand, and probably not to use.

There are a lot of words out there that are important for you to understand, but that you may never use in your own writing. Maybe it’s just me, but using these words sounds like it was written in the 19th century.

“Mary and Joan entered the room, with the latter nervously clutching her handbag.”

The following seems to flow so much better:

“Mary and Joan entered the room; Joan was nervously clutching her handbag.”

But when your teacher makes a note saying you should discuss the latter point in greater detail, it’s helpful knowing which one he or she meant!

What Do You Think?

We know that the “former” is the person, thing or idea that came first, and we know that the “latter” is the last person, thing or idea to be mentioned, but do you think we ought to use these words? Do you use them? I’d be curious to know!

Other Words for “Said”

Direct speech can be difficult to smoothly navigate when you’re writing, but if you’re writing a novel or short story, dialogue is almost certainly going to happen at some point. When there is a conversation, the most common thing to do is use “said” when a person speaks:

“Are you crazy?” said Mary.

“Some of the time,” said John.

“Well,” said Mary, “I wish you would give me some warning before you do things like that!”

“I’ll try,” said John.

Then Mary leaned in close and said, “Oh shucks! I love you anyway!”

That’s a whole lot of “said” right there, and it gets repetitive pretty fast, doesn’t it? It becomes essential to have alternatives for the word “said” if you want your writing to sound decent. There are several ways this can be done.

Skip the Bits Outside the Quotation Marks Altogether!

If a conversation involves two people (dialogue), your reader will quickly see the two people are talking. That means that you can introduce your speakers, and then continue the conversation without saying who said what on the assumption your reader will be able to work out who is speaking, at least for a few lines.

Describe Actions Before or After the Quotation Marks

For example: “Oh shucks! I love you anyway!” Mary cuddled closer with a sigh.

In our example, we can clearly see Mary was doing the talking. If John says something next, he’ll get a new paragraph to himself, emphasizing the change of speaker. Voila! Conundrum avoided. “Saying” words have been completely skipped, but we still know who was talking.

Use Words Other than “Said”

Depending on context, there are a whole bunch of alternative words for “said” we can choose. Perhaps Mary’s romantic utterance was:

Whispered
Breathed
Murmured
Sighed
Purred
Blurted
Gurgled
Chuckled
Mumbled
Warbled
Simpered

Her opening, “Are you crazy?” could have been:

Asked (a little weak, but there it is)
Exclaimed
Cried
Yelled
Squealed
Screamed
Shrieked
Squeaked
Shouted
Bellowed
Roared
Snapped
Wailed
Gasped
Laughed
Giggled
Tittered
Complained
Objected
Protested
Sobbed
Groaned
Grumbled
Scolded

What’s interesting is all these words imply mood much better than “said” does. Was Mary objecting to John’s actions in a good-humored, frightened or angry way? Your choice of words can tell your reader what her tone of voice was.

And when she told John she loved him anyway, was she feeling romantic or amused? Did she blurt it out unexpectedly, or was she being coy and flirtatious? How did John feel when he responded to her initial protestation? Was he serious or light-hearted?

Changing Moods

Look at how these words change the mood of the conversation:

“Are you crazy?” sobbed Mary.

“Some of the time,” muttered John.

“Well,” Mary complained, “I wish you would give me some warning before you do things like that!”

“I’ll try,” John promised.

Then Mary leaned in close and murmured, “Oh shucks! I love you anyway!”

You should have gained a sense of how the person speaking felt by the way they said it. Now see how changing the “talking” words can change the entire scene:

“Are you crazy?” giggled Mary.

“Some of the time,” chuckled John.

“Well,” Mary laughed, “I wish you would give me some warning before you do things like that!”

“I’ll try,” John grinned.

Then Mary leaned in close and purred, “Oh shucks! I love you anyway!”

Ok, so it’s not great literature. I’d probably have avoided introducing the speaker from about line 3, reintroducing them if the mood changed, or the conversation started to get too long to follow, but you get the idea. Example one is a lovers’ tiff, while example two is a couple having fun together. That’s a big difference, and “said” just wouldn’t have conveyed that.

List of “Said” Words According to Mood

Angry, Tense

Snapped
Snarled
Growled
Barked (lots of doggy words so far)
Bellowed (and a moose)
Roared (and a lion – this one could also imply triumph)
Grumbled
Complained
Objected
Remonstrated
Huffed (this one is just mildly exasperated)
Nagged
Blustered
Thundered (and some weather)
Screamed
Rasped
Worried
Yelled
Screamed
Shouted
Shrieked
Hollered (a bit of volume in these last few!)
Seethed
Ranted
Fumed

Happy, Amused, Positive

Laughed
Chuckled
Giggled
Grinned
Guffawed
Gurgled
Joked
Quipped
Teased
Cheered
Crowed

Certain, Sure, Confident

Declared
Asserted
Announced
Insisted
Assured
Argued
Bragged
Boasted
Stated
Reassured
Preached
Commented
Remarked
Confirmed
Vowed
Promised
Observed

Sarcastic, Creepy

Leered
Sneered
Jeered
Drawled
Taunted
Cackled
Mocked

Asking or Asking for

Begged
Pleaded
Requested
Questioned
Queried
Probed
Asked (of course)
Inquired
Entreated
Cajoled
Wheedled

Unsure

Faltered
Stammered
Stuttered
Hesitated
Guessed
Blurted
Trembled
Speculated

Tones other than the ones we’ve already covered (especially the loud ones)

Whispered
Murmured
Hissed
Trilled
Sang
Sniffed
Snivelled
Mewled
Moaned
Purred
Sobbed
Groaned
Moaned
Grunted

And we’re just scratching the surface…here are a few more:

Volunteered
Lied
Interrupted
Interjected
Exclaimed
Remonstrated
Finished

And as for “finished,” I realize this list is far from actually being finished. “Said” is all very well, but with so many more expressive words to choose from, you probably don’t need it! Do you have a favorite word to use other than “said” when you write that’s not listed above? Let us know and we’ll add it to our list.

How to Write a Common Application Transfer Essay

how to write a college transfer application

First, boot up your computer. Now write.

Well, actually, it’s a little more complicated than that, but it’s still not as difficult as you might imagine. This essay differs from your first college essay, because it has slightly less of a focus on your personality. Why do you have to write this essay? There is no secret answer. The college wants to know why you’re motivated to attend that particular school rather than just carrying on at your current one.

What’s Your Reason?

“I hate my current college,” is definitely not a good answer. You should never say anything negative about your current school. Chances are, you have valid reasons for a transfer even if you weren’t quite happy, and it’s important to highlight these rather than complain.

For example, class sizes at your current school might have been too big, so your professors were unable to pay any attention to your needs. Don’t voice the criticism. Instead, say something like this, “I was impressed with the smaller, more tightly-knit classes in X College, and I believe I would benefit from the enhanced opportunity for interaction with teachers and fellow students.”

Perhaps you’ve decided to change your major, and your current college doesn’t offer the courses you want to take. You may have decided to get some academic credits at a community college because it’s cheaper, and now you want to move to one of the big league colleges to benefit from its reputation as a leading learning institution. Maybe you’ve been studying out of town but would like to be nearer to old friends and family, or you might have fallen in love with a certain college because the professors are famous experts in their field.

The reasons why you think going to a new college is likely to be a good move will probably take up quite a lot of your essay, but even if your reasons are simple, they should be clearly written, be positive, and be valid. Your previous college isn’t working out for some reason. Why do you think that transferring offers a solution?

Should You Mention Academic Difficulties?

If some of your grades have been less than stellar, you should explain why this happened, but remember to take responsibility. Blaming others for poor performance doesn’t show you to be a responsible and mature student. If you found a subject confusing or difficult, or you lost your cool in the exam room and blanked out, say so. Then explain what you have done to overcome the problem. This shows you’re determined to succeed, and you won’t let anything stand in your way.

What Are Your Objectives?

When we have just graduated from high school, we often aren’t quite sure what we want to do with our lives. After a year or two at college, however, we have a much clearer picture. As you did in your first college admission essay, you will want to write what you want to achieve in life and how you plan to do this. The people who read your essay want to know whether their college will meet your needs and whether you’ll fit in OK.

Tips from the Experts

Here’s what many of the experts on transfer aplications say you should and should not do:

You SHOULD

Read instructions carefully, stick to deadlines and remain within the recommended word count.
Structure your writing well, with a thesis, supporting information, and conclusion.
Stay focussed. You have to say the most important things about your transfer in a limited number of words.
Back up your reasoning. What happened to make you think in a certain way? Did someone say something to inspire you? Did something significant happen that caused you to form an idea?
Show what you want by putting it in context, rather than just saying what you want.
Grab attention with a compelling first paragraph.
Proofread carefully, and if possible, get someone in the know to double-check.

You SHOULDN’T

Regurgitate hackneyed phrases just because you think they will impress. They won’t.
Dish up information that is fully covered elsewhere in your application.
Fake it till you make it or tell lies. Be yourself.
Wander away from the point you are trying to make.
Use “big” words because you think it’s impressive. Keep it simple.
Do it in a hurry at the last moment. You could blow your chance.

Need More Help? Here’s an Outline

1. Use an anecdote to show how you became interested in your field of study.

2. Talk about the positive experiences you had at college so far.

3. Say why you feel you would benefit from a move to the new college. Back this up with examples and your own reasoning.

4. What do you want from your new college? How will it help you to succeed? What do you ultimately want to achieve?

5. Tie it all together with a concluding paragraph.

The Best Ways to End a Letter

When it comes to ending letters, most of us already know about using “Yours Sincerely” and “Yours Faithfully.” When I was at school, we were told to sign off friendly letters with the former, and business letters with the latter, but nowadays, opinions seem to have changed. Many people say “Yours Sincerely” is too formal, even for business purposes, and since email seems to have its own etiquette, everyone is a bit confused as to the best way to sign off a letter or email.

Most people seem to feel not offering any salutation at the end of a message is a trifle too abrupt. Personally, I don’t mind, but I have come across people who are offended when I fail to use a closing phrase, so I’m a little more cautious these days.

With a little help from experience and Uncle Google, I’ve tracked down a whole bunch of tips on how to close a letter. As I suspected, it’s all about context.

Formal Business Letters

I still like “Yours Faithfully” in this context, especially when you’re writing a formal letter. However, it does seem a little stilted for email sign-offs, even formal ones.

After doing a bit of reading, I found most people don’t mind “Regards” or “Best Regards.” I can’t sincerely offer “best” regards to absolutely everyone. Surely some people have to get second-best regards, so I settle for “Regards” and hope for the best.

There are forms of the “Regards” sign-off that irritate me, but not everyone else, so presumably it’s acceptable. “Warmest Regards” or “Warm Regards” strikes me as slightly patronizing and insincere, especially when it comes from someone who can’t possibly have any feelings, warm or otherwise, about me. As for “Kind Regards,” I may not be in need of kindness, and there are better ways to show it if I am. I certainly wouldn’t use any of these for a job application letter, even in email format. Thanking the reader for considering my application seems courteous, and I’d follow it with the traditional “Yours Faithfully,” because it’s a safe bet.

Informal and Semi-Formal Business Emails

Intra and inter-office email is the norm these days. Your boss will email you an instruction, a colleague will ask you for help via email, or you may have received something that’s helpful to you. Sometimes you deal with emails from suppliers’ reps with whom you have a friendly business relationship, or you may be dealing with regular clients in a relatively friendly and informal context.

You can be a lot more relaxed now, but not too relaxed. Apparently, “Cheers” is becoming quite popular, and some use “Warmly,” “Best” or “Very Best.” I will be unashamedly biased here. None of these is particularly appropriate. “Cheers” is plain silly, and sounds like you’re about to hit the bar rather than the boardroom, “Warmly” just sounds wrong, and the last two could at least have been followed by a “Regards.” It just looks lazy.

“Thank You,” “Thanks” and “Thanks Again” proved to be surprisingly controversial. Although most people agreed they were fine if you were thanking someone for something they’d already done, many said thanking someone after asking them for something was patronizing.

I disagree. I used to have a colleague who used to sign off “Thanking You in Advance,” and I used to think it terribly clever, if stuffy. I still think if you know someone is going to work because of what you asked them to do, it’s polite to thank them. It’s your call.

You can be reasonably creative with informal business mails. There’s nothing wrong with “Congratulations on clinching that deal!” or “Wishing you every success in your new venture.” If relationships are friendly enough, and the occasion is appropriate, a heartfelt “You’re an angel, thanks a million,” may be appropriate. That’s the key. Keep it appropriate. “xxoooxx” is NOT appropriate for a business letter.

Friendly Letters

Now that we’ve discussed the idea of sign-offs being appropriate, you’ll understand what I mean when I say these need to be appropriate too. You wouldn’t sign a letter to your Aunty June “xxxoooxxx,” if you’ve only met her twice in your life and she’s finally sent you a birthday present for the first time. “Yours Sincerely” is perfect for this distant contact.

Your letter is presumably not all about you, so personalizing your greeting shows you care. What are you wishing this person? “Hope you have a great European holiday,” “Happy to hear you’re settled. Enjoy it!”, “Thinking of you,” and “Wishing you luck with the exams!” are only a sampling of your options. Perhaps you have something to thank them for. “Thanks for everything,” may be unoriginal, but at least it shows appreciation. Your mom, on the other hand, may settle for nothing less than “Lots of love,” “Tons of love,” or other greetings conveying enormous amounts of love.

The days of signing off friendly letters to people you know well with “Yours Sincerely” have been left behind together with chalk boards and other educational antiquities. Be creative! Be sincere! Give your friend, family member or romantic interest your very best wishes for whatever situation they’re in or express how you feel about them. Do you want to give your friend a virtual hug? “Hugs” is a lovely sign-off, at least I think so…

(Photo courtesy of Martin)

The Best Words to Describe Yourself in an Interview

Your job interview places you in quite a dilemma. You can’t be overly modest and put yourself down, but you also can’t brag like crazy, or you’ll end up looking egotistical. You’ll be asked a lot of questions about yourself. Which words should you use?

Recruiters do like to see a touch of modesty. There’s something about a know-it-all that sets anyone’s teeth on edge. The company will also want to know how you’ll fit in with bosses and colleagues. They’ll be looking for qualitative information that isn’t to be found in your resume. Here are some statements that recruiters love:

“I am eager to learn.”
“I am determined.”
“I never give up until I get something right.”
“I get on well with all kinds of people.”
“I like to keep a positive attitude.”
“Hard work doesn’t bother me. I actually like it.”
“I enjoy facing challenges.”
“I like everything I do to be well-organized.”

Of course, if any of these statements don’t apply, you shouldn’t use them. If you get the job, people will soon see you weren’t being truthful. The above statements apply to any job and they indicate you’ll be a cheerful, hardworking employee. But there are a few extras you can mention in specific types of jobs.

Best Words for Customer-Service, Sales or Marketing Interviews

Let’s be frank, not everyone is suited for customer service. No matter what company is interviewing you, they will want to know you’ll be good for their image. That means looking neat, but not overdressed, having good posture, being pleasant, and being well-spoken. Try these lines to describe yourself if questions arise where you can utilize them.

“I can keep my cool under pressure.”
“I don’t easily lose my temper.”
“I’m good at multi-tasking.”
“I enjoy meeting new people every day.”
“I love making people’s day.”
“I believe customers are the most important part of any business.”
“If necessary, I can be assertive without being rude.”

Do you get where this is going? Recruiters want to know you can handle having two people waiting for you while the phone is ringing, and another customer is being unreasonable and rude, while still being unruffled.

They also want to know you’re an organizer. Can you keep track of several tasks for specific customers in a disciplined way? For example, a sales rep may get a call, have to get information, call back, record the order, get the order dispatched, correctly invoiced, and call the customer again to follow up. They must do this for several customers at once, so things can get pretty chaotic unless they’re smart organizers.

In marketing, they also want to know you’re people-oriented and organized, but they’ll want to know more about the creative aspects too. Try these options for describing yourself:

“I love turning great ideas into reality.”
“I’ve done a few freelance projects, and I’ve brought my portfolio.”
“I find people and their opinions fascinating.”
“I really enjoy reading about and learning from marketing success stories.”

Best Words for Accounting or Administrative Interviews

Apart from the things we looked at in the generic statements, there are some extra statements recruiters like.

“I’m a perfectionist.”
“Organizing data so that it makes sense is rewarding for me.”
“I’m a methodical person.”
“I like working systematically.”

As you can see, you’re demonstrating a different set of qualities. You like getting things done in a calm and organized way. You crunch away at your work according to a specific system, and you like being part of that system because it results in useful, condensed information of some sort.

Best Words for Management Interviews

I’m going to be brutally honest here. Most of us do not walk out of college into highly-paid managerial jobs, and if you don’t know what to say at the interview, you’re not ready. Besides, there are more kinds of managers than you can shake a stick at, and each of them requires different personal qualities.

I’ve interviewed a lot of people for minor managerial posts, and all I can say is it depends on your skill, experience, expectations (salary, etc.) and whether you’ll fit into the organization’s management style. How you dress for your interview matters a lot. Play safe and stick to understated, yet smart clothing. Ladies, not too much makeup or perfume please; my apologies if this offends you, but this is the real world.

Be true to Yourself

If you don’t feel you can honestly say any of these things, don’t. You must be able to back your statements up with evidence from your life. “I’m very determined. For example, I….”

You should also ask yourself whether you’ll be happy in a job where you have to pretend to be someone other than who you really are and whether you’ll even be able to do it. You probably won’t. What do you get? Short service and a bad reputation are the two things no future employer is going to like. Look to a field you’ll enjoy and excel at instead.

10 Great Pieces of Advice About Editing

If you’re lucky, you know someone who can act as your editor, but most of us end up having to edit our own editing. There’s just one problem: it’s really hard to spot mistakes you made yourself. You might think some commercial editing software can help you, and although I’ll admit some of these are pretty good at picking up certain errors, none of them will find them all. You can believe me. I’ve tried a lot of them with hope in my heart. To test them, I feed them work I know is packed with errors, and I still haven’t found one able to find all of them. I guess this leads me to my first piece of advice:

Never Trust Editing Software

It’s actually quite comforting to know there are some things a machine can’t do effectively: writing is one of them, editing is another. Don’t rely on spell checkers, grammar checkers or any other writing programs to catch all of your errors. At least your eyes and your brain will never be made redundant by a machine. The Matrix needs us.

Let It Lie for a While

The worst possible time to try and edit something you’ve written is right after you write it. I find the greater the distance in time between me and my written work, the more effectively I’m able to edit it. It’s as if it becomes someone else’s work. I can read it impartially and with fresh eyes, picking out mistakes I previously missed. 24 hours is the absolute minimum, and 48 hours is even better. Do I practice what I preach? Ahem…

Read It Aloud

Yes, I know it feels dorky. Just pretend you’re a TV news reader or the narrator for a documentary. Put on your best “announcer” voice and read it as if it were a script. You can also have a program read it to you with the Word Counter proofread feature. (If you don’t see it above the text area, go to “options” and then click on “buttons”) Does anything make you falter? Are there sentences that sound weird? Did you need to pause at a place where there was no punctuation mark? These are areas that probably need tweaking, even if you can’t actually put your finger on the reason why they’re wrong.

Trust Your Instincts

It gets harder when you’re editing someone else’s work. You don’t want to offend them by making unnecessary changes. Sometimes, things are said in a way you wouldn’t have done it. Is it wrong? Maybe not, but I’d still advise an adjustment. When I edit, I can’t always say exactly why I changed this or that sentence, but in time, I’ve learned that my instincts are often right. It’s better to make an unnecessary change than to skip a change just because you aren’t sure how to explain it.

Track Changes

When editing another person’s work, track changes so they can decide if they want to accept your judgment or not. Then create a “clean” version (after saving the “changes tracked” one), and check again. I often find I pick up additional errors. Don’t ask me why. Maybe one doesn’t see everything the first time around. With your own work, there’s no need to track changes, but the final proofread rule still applies.

Look out for Ambiguity

You can be ambiguous without actually making a grammatical error. You know what you meant. Did you say what you meant? Imagine you know nothing about the topic and are reading about it for the first time. Does it make sense?

Pay Extra Attention to Long Sentences

The longer the sentence, the more likely it’ll contain an error. Have you put a comma where a period would be better? Is your thought presented in a crisp, clear way, or have you become tangled up in your own words?

Does Everything You Have Written Contribute?

When writing an essay, you’re trying to get a point across. Anything that doesn’t actually contribute to the point is redundant. Even in creative writing, there has to be a reason for everything you have said. You could be contributing to the atmosphere or providing background, but if what you’ve said does not contribute something, it’s just padding that waters down your prose.

Beware of Punctuation

It’s worth studying how to use punctuation marks. Commas, semi-colons, colons and dashes are often used incorrectly. Have you used them correctly? When in doubt, check. If you’re still not sure, rephrase.

Know Your Vices

When editing your own work, it’s good to know what mistakes you commonly make. Since you probably make them without even realizing it, have someone who knows their stuff give some of your writing a look over to point them out. Ask questions and learn to identify your slips. You’ll probably find your slips a few times before the lesson sinks in.

(Photo courtesy of Matt Hampel)

How Many Words Is War and Peace?

Leo Tolstoy’s historical novel on the Napoleonic invasion of Russia has become a byword for long books. If someone talks about doing something in the time it takes to read War and Peace, you can be sure that they mean it’s going to take quite a long time, and if your teacher comments that he or she wanted an essay from you, not War and Peace, your essay was way too long.

War and Peace is considered Tolstoy’s masterwork and a significant contribution to literature, but I must admit that though I’ve tried a couple of times, I’ve never made it through the whole thing. The philosophical passages that make up much of the book are heavy going. If you have read this book, give yourself a medal and a pat on the back. You deserve it.

How many words are there in War and Peace?

War and Peace has 587,287 words, making it more than ten times longer than your NaNoWriMo novel. Tolstoy completed his first draft in 1863, but he later spent three years rewriting most of it. One would think after spending so much time on one book, Tolstoy would have been too exhausted to write anymore, but he went on to write Ana Karenina, which was published in 1877, as well as several other novels.

Is War and Peace the longest novel ever?

Remembering War and Peace was written as a four-volume set with two epilogs, it’s fair if we include some series. If we do that, we come across several famously lengthy stories. The Harry Potter series consists of more than one million words. The word count for the Wheel of Time series by Robert Jordan takes the record: 4,410,036 words! Just imagine writing more than four million words.

Did you think that The Lord of the Rings would be near the top of the list? Think again! Tolkien managed to write his classic in “just” 481,103 words. If it’s one of your favorites, you now know something about it that you didn’t know before.

How Heavy Is War and Peace?

The actual weight of the book depends on the edition and whether or not it’s paperback or hardback. As the above photo shows, the hardback version can weigh almost 4 pounds (3 lbs, 14 oz). Of course, paperbacks would weigh much less.

How Many Pages is War and Peace?

The 587,287 words in War and Peace end up being 1,215 pages. Again, the page number will vary from edition to edition due to different sized pages and print used.

Translating War and Peace

Tolstoy was, of course, a Russian author, so for us to be able to read his novel, it first had to be translated into English. This was done for the first time in 1885 by Clara Bell, who translated it from the French version. This re-translated translation was far from perfect, and ten further translations into English have been done since.

War and Peace has been translated into German, French, Spanish, Dutch, Finnish, Swedish, Korean, Albanian and Czech. You must respect all these brave translators; what a massive job to tackle!

Interestingly, a large portion of the book is written in French, but at the time, the nobility in Russia often spoke French as a matter of course, and some of them could barely speak Russian.

Is War and Peace a novel?

Tolstoy himself said his book was not really a novel in the truest sense of the word. Although he has woven fictional characters into the narrative, he carefully researched real-life events by interviewing people and reading first-hand accounts of the French invasion of Russia. Only the first half of War and Peace deals with fictional characters; the rest consists mostly of essays on war, power, and history.

Tolstoy didn’t agree with the way military history is recorded and tried to get closer to the real events by portraying them through the eyes of real and fictional characters. The names of over 160 people who lived during that time are mentioned in his work.

What makes Tolstoy so special as a writer?

Apart from having written an extremely long book, Tolstoy was admired for his writing style. Just as movie cameras give us an overview of a scene, pan in, and pan out, so Tolstoy took readers from the “big picture” to the personal experiences of his characters and back again. This style of writing was relatively new, and Tolstoy is considered to be its master. In addition, he wanted people to be able to accurately visualize scenes, so he included a wealth of detail.

In the last part of his book, where he increasingly looked at philosophies and facts, he managed to weave his essays into the story. Some abridged versions have taken these, and the second part of the epilog, which consisted solely of essays, out.

Is it literary sacrilege to edit Tolstoy? Well, it’s a long book, and not all of it is really a “story.” Even when Tolstoy was still alive, abridged versions of his work were produced, presumably with his permission.

A little more about the man behind War and Peace

Tolstoy was born Lev Nikolayevitch Tolstoy in 1828. He was born into the privileged aristocratic class and had the title of Count. In his younger days, he was a typical, dissolute aristocrat, but his first-hand experience of war, his travels, and his reading led him to a spiritual crisis and reawakening. He became a fervent Christian and a pacifist whose works inspired the likes of Gandhi. He died in 1910 at the ripe old age of 82.

(Photo courtest of Jill Clardy)