Writing

The Difference Between It’s and Its

Before you begin to feel bad about not knowing when to use “it’s” as opposed to “its,” I have a confession to make. There was a time long, long ago, in a galaxy very like this one, when I didn’t know the difference either!

In my defense, it is really easy to get confused. Generally speaking, you would use an apostrophe for omitted letters (e.g. when you say “what’s” instead of “what is”) as well as for possessives (“John’s” meaning that something belongs to John). To make it even more confusing, you could say “John’s in the backyard,” and that would be an abbreviation of “John is.” Both the possessive form and the contraction get the apostrophe.

But there is a special rule that applies to the word “it.” Sometimes, you’d use the apostrophe and that would be correct, and other times, it would be derisively referred to as a “grocers’ apostrophe.”

What’s a Grocer’s Apostrophe?

A grocers’ apostrophe is an apostrophe that is used in the wrong place. Have you ever seen signage bearing the information “Banana’s on special today?” That’s a genuine grocer’s apostrophe in action. As you probably know, the plural of “banana” is “bananas.” No apostrophe is needed. You could say “The banana’s skin was yellow,” because you are now using the possessive form. The skin belonging to the banana was yellow.

Just as you may feel a little superior when you see that “banana’s” are on special, so teachers and other nit-picky people like bosses and… well… me… would smirk when they see an “it’s” instead of an “its.” Let’s get into the nitty-gritty of which one to use in what circumstances. It’s actually quite logical. If you remember one important fact, you’ll never get it wrong again.

Only Use the Apostrophe for the Contraction

You only use the apostrophe for the contraction of “it is” and sometimes, “it has.” Can you remember this? Then you’re good to go already. In contractions, letters are omitted, and we indicate the missing letter with an apostrophe. Examples of contractions include:

It’s – It is
What’s – What is
Don’t – Do not
Won’t – Will not
She’ll – She will

And so on, and so on. The apostrophe is used to show the word is a contraction, and in the case of the word “it,” it’s the only time you’ll use an apostrophe.

Never Use the Apostrophe For “Belonging to” It

Usually, you’d use the apostrophe for possessives too, but not in this case.

John’s scarf got tangled in Mary’s.
The children’s toys were all broken.
The cat’s toy is under the sofa.
The business’ logo is very smart.

Use the word “it”, however, and the “belonging to” form has no apostrophe.

The cat played with its toy.
Its paint is peeling.
Its logo is unimaginative.

How Can You Know for Sure When to Use the Apostrophe?

It’s easy! If you can extend “it’s” into “it is” or “it has,” then the apostrophe is completely correct. Try it with the possessive, and it obviously won’t work. Another way to remember is to think about the words “his” or “hers.” Neither of these words has an apostrophe either. “Its” is simply the form of “his” or “hers” you would use when talking about something that’s not a person.

That’s because the words “its,” “his” and “hers” are not actually nouns. They are pronouns. That isn’t to say you would never use an apostrophe with a pronoun, but it does help a little since pronouns with apostrophes showing possession are relatively rare. Using them with possessive pronouns (and “its” is a possessive pronoun, just like “his,” “hers,” “yours,” or “theirs”) would be redundant because the very nature of the word shows possession.

Now you have the more complicated explanation, too. But don’t worry about it too much. Simply remember when you refer to something belonging to an “it,” no apostrophe is used. Do that, and you’ll never make the common writing mistake of adding an apostrophe to “it” when it’s unnecessary.

Former vs Latter with Examples

Here’s a nice easy one to remember the difference between the words former and latter. Do you see the “for” in “former”? Use it to tell you the thing you’re talking about came before another thing that you mentioned.

Do you see the “latte” in “latter”? That means you should have a cup of coffee! OK. Kidding, but it sounds a lot like “later” doesn’t it? That tells you that the thing you’re referring to came later than, or after something else.

Former and Latter in Action

Let’s make these words jump through some hoops!

“It was raining, and there was lightening in the air. Mary didn’t mind the former problem, but the latter one troubled her because she was afraid of thunder.”

“You need to have a lot of determination to get through college, and you have to be ready to do a lot of hard work. If I were to rate these two, I’d say the latter point is the most important to your success.”

“If I had to choose between good looks and intelligence, I think I’d go for the former advantage!” (Silly you!)

“I love John Keats and William Shakespeare, but the latter seems to have more applicability to today’s word.”

Sometimes, more than two things will be mentioned, with “latter” used to denote what is last. Using “former” in this context may be confusing because it doesn’t really tell you which of the items that came first you’re referring to.

“There were apples, pears, oranges and grapes on the table, but it was the latter that made Joan’s mouth water!”

“There were apples, pears, oranges and grapes on the table, but the former of these fruits seemed the most appealing.” See what I mean? We can assume Joan found the apples appealing, but with a list such as this, we can’t be sure. It would be better to just say what we meant and get it over with! Joan found the apples appealing. The End.

Should You Use Former and Latter?

To tell you the truth, using words like “former” or “latter” can make your reader go back to reread the first part of a sentence, and that isn’t a great strategy. It’s cumbersome! And even if you change things around and warn people to look out for the former or latter point before stating them, it sounds a little pompous. Even in business writing, coming across as a person who is easy to understand and communicate with is an advantage.

So you could start by warning people to look out for the first or second thing you say, but there are easier and more comfortable ways to do it. For instance:

“Which of these options do you prefer, the former, or the latter?”

Versus

“Choose one of these two options.”

“Which of these two options would you prefer, the first or the second?”

There’s nothing actually wrong with using “former” and “latter,” but to be honest with you, I never do. It’s rather archaic, even though the two words are still in use, and there just seem to be easier ways to say things. I mean, when’s the last time you use either of these words in a conversation with a friend? I thought so!

Words to read and understand, and probably not to use.

There are a lot of words out there that are important for you to understand, but that you may never use in your own writing. Maybe it’s just me, but using these words sounds like it was written in the 19th century.

“Mary and Joan entered the room, with the latter nervously clutching her handbag.”

The following seems to flow so much better:

“Mary and Joan entered the room; Joan was nervously clutching her handbag.”

But when your teacher makes a note saying you should discuss the latter point in greater detail, it’s helpful knowing which one he or she meant!

What Do You Think?

We know that the “former” is the person, thing or idea that came first, and we know that the “latter” is the last person, thing or idea to be mentioned, but do you think we ought to use these words? Do you use them? I’d be curious to know!

Other Words for “Said”

Direct speech can be difficult to smoothly navigate when you’re writing, but if you’re writing a novel or short story, dialogue is almost certainly going to happen at some point. When there is a conversation, the most common thing to do is use “said” when a person speaks:

“Are you crazy?” said Mary.

“Some of the time,” said John.

“Well,” said Mary, “I wish you would give me some warning before you do things like that!”

“I’ll try,” said John.

Then Mary leaned in close and said, “Oh shucks! I love you anyway!”

That’s a whole lot of “said” right there, and it gets repetitive pretty fast, doesn’t it? It becomes essential to have alternatives for the word “said” if you want your writing to sound decent. There are several ways this can be done.

Skip the Bits Outside the Quotation Marks Altogether!

If a conversation involves two people (dialogue), your reader will quickly see the two people are talking. That means that you can introduce your speakers, and then continue the conversation without saying who said what on the assumption your reader will be able to work out who is speaking, at least for a few lines.

Describe Actions Before or After the Quotation Marks

For example: “Oh shucks! I love you anyway!” Mary cuddled closer with a sigh.

In our example, we can clearly see Mary was doing the talking. If John says something next, he’ll get a new paragraph to himself, emphasizing the change of speaker. Voila! Conundrum avoided. “Saying” words have been completely skipped, but we still know who was talking.

Use Words Other than “Said”

Depending on context, there are a whole bunch of alternative words for “said” we can choose. Perhaps Mary’s romantic utterance was:

Whispered
Breathed
Murmured
Sighed
Purred
Blurted
Gurgled
Chuckled
Mumbled
Warbled
Simpered

Her opening, “Are you crazy?” could have been:

Asked (a little weak, but there it is)
Exclaimed
Cried
Yelled
Squealed
Screamed
Shrieked
Squeaked
Shouted
Bellowed
Roared
Snapped
Wailed
Gasped
Laughed
Giggled
Tittered
Complained
Objected
Protested
Sobbed
Groaned
Grumbled
Scolded

What’s interesting is all these words imply mood much better than “said” does. Was Mary objecting to John’s actions in a good-humored, frightened or angry way? Your choice of words can tell your reader what her tone of voice was.

And when she told John she loved him anyway, was she feeling romantic or amused? Did she blurt it out unexpectedly, or was she being coy and flirtatious? How did John feel when he responded to her initial protestation? Was he serious or light-hearted?

Changing Moods

Look at how these words change the mood of the conversation:

“Are you crazy?” sobbed Mary.

“Some of the time,” muttered John.

“Well,” Mary complained, “I wish you would give me some warning before you do things like that!”

“I’ll try,” John promised.

Then Mary leaned in close and murmured, “Oh shucks! I love you anyway!”

You should have gained a sense of how the person speaking felt by the way they said it. Now see how changing the “talking” words can change the entire scene:

“Are you crazy?” giggled Mary.

“Some of the time,” chuckled John.

“Well,” Mary laughed, “I wish you would give me some warning before you do things like that!”

“I’ll try,” John grinned.

Then Mary leaned in close and purred, “Oh shucks! I love you anyway!”

Ok, so it’s not great literature. I’d probably have avoided introducing the speaker from about line 3, reintroducing them if the mood changed, or the conversation started to get too long to follow, but you get the idea. Example one is a lovers’ tiff, while example two is a couple having fun together. That’s a big difference, and “said” just wouldn’t have conveyed that.

List of “Said” Words According to Mood

Angry, Tense

Snapped
Snarled
Growled
Barked (lots of doggy words so far)
Bellowed (and a moose)
Roared (and a lion – this one could also imply triumph)
Grumbled
Complained
Objected
Remonstrated
Huffed (this one is just mildly exasperated)
Nagged
Blustered
Thundered (and some weather)
Screamed
Rasped
Worried
Yelled
Screamed
Shouted
Shrieked
Hollered (a bit of volume in these last few!)
Seethed
Ranted
Fumed

Happy, Amused, Positive

Laughed
Chuckled
Giggled
Grinned
Guffawed
Gurgled
Joked
Quipped
Teased
Cheered
Crowed

Certain, Sure, Confident

Declared
Asserted
Announced
Insisted
Assured
Argued
Bragged
Boasted
Stated
Reassured
Preached
Commented
Remarked
Confirmed
Vowed
Promised
Observed

Sarcastic, Creepy

Leered
Sneered
Jeered
Drawled
Taunted
Cackled
Mocked

Asking or Asking for

Begged
Pleaded
Requested
Questioned
Queried
Probed
Asked (of course)
Inquired
Entreated
Cajoled
Wheedled

Unsure

Faltered
Stammered
Stuttered
Hesitated
Guessed
Blurted
Trembled
Speculated

Tones other than the ones we’ve already covered (especially the loud ones)

Whispered
Murmured
Hissed
Trilled
Sang
Sniffed
Snivelled
Mewled
Moaned
Purred
Sobbed
Groaned
Moaned
Grunted

And we’re just scratching the surface…here are a few more:

Volunteered
Lied
Interrupted
Interjected
Exclaimed
Remonstrated
Finished

And as for “finished,” I realize this list is far from actually being finished. “Said” is all very well, but with so many more expressive words to choose from, you probably don’t need it! Do you have a favorite word to use other than “said” when you write that’s not listed above? Let us know and we’ll add it to our list.

How to Write a Common Application Transfer Essay

how to write a college transfer application

First, boot up your computer. Now write.

Well, actually, it’s a little more complicated than that, but it’s still not as difficult as you might imagine. This essay differs from your first college essay, because it has slightly less of a focus on your personality. Why do you have to write this essay? There is no secret answer. The college wants to know why you’re motivated to attend that particular school rather than just carrying on at your current one.

What’s Your Reason?

“I hate my current college,” is definitely not a good answer. You should never say anything negative about your current school. Chances are, you have valid reasons for a transfer even if you weren’t quite happy, and it’s important to highlight these rather than complain.

For example, class sizes at your current school might have been too big, so your professors were unable to pay any attention to your needs. Don’t voice the criticism. Instead, say something like this, “I was impressed with the smaller, more tightly-knit classes in X College, and I believe I would benefit from the enhanced opportunity for interaction with teachers and fellow students.”

Perhaps you’ve decided to change your major, and your current college doesn’t offer the courses you want to take. You may have decided to get some academic credits at a community college because it’s cheaper, and now you want to move to one of the big league colleges to benefit from its reputation as a leading learning institution. Maybe you’ve been studying out of town but would like to be nearer to old friends and family, or you might have fallen in love with a certain college because the professors are famous experts in their field.

The reasons why you think going to a new college is likely to be a good move will probably take up quite a lot of your essay, but even if your reasons are simple, they should be clearly written, be positive, and be valid. Your previous college isn’t working out for some reason. Why do you think that transferring offers a solution?

Should You Mention Academic Difficulties?

If some of your grades have been less than stellar, you should explain why this happened, but remember to take responsibility. Blaming others for poor performance doesn’t show you to be a responsible and mature student. If you found a subject confusing or difficult, or you lost your cool in the exam room and blanked out, say so. Then explain what you have done to overcome the problem. This shows you’re determined to succeed, and you won’t let anything stand in your way.

What Are Your Objectives?

When we have just graduated from high school, we often aren’t quite sure what we want to do with our lives. After a year or two at college, however, we have a much clearer picture. As you did in your first college admission essay, you will want to write what you want to achieve in life and how you plan to do this. The people who read your essay want to know whether their college will meet your needs and whether you’ll fit in OK.

Tips from the Experts

Here’s what many of the experts on transfer aplications say you should and should not do:

You SHOULD

Read instructions carefully, stick to deadlines and remain within the recommended word count.
Structure your writing well, with a thesis, supporting information, and conclusion.
Stay focussed. You have to say the most important things about your transfer in a limited number of words.
Back up your reasoning. What happened to make you think in a certain way? Did someone say something to inspire you? Did something significant happen that caused you to form an idea?
Show what you want by putting it in context, rather than just saying what you want.
Grab attention with a compelling first paragraph.
Proofread carefully, and if possible, get someone in the know to double-check.

You SHOULDN’T

Regurgitate hackneyed phrases just because you think they will impress. They won’t.
Dish up information that is fully covered elsewhere in your application.
Fake it till you make it or tell lies. Be yourself.
Wander away from the point you are trying to make.
Use “big” words because you think it’s impressive. Keep it simple.
Do it in a hurry at the last moment. You could blow your chance.

Need More Help? Here’s an Outline

1. Use an anecdote to show how you became interested in your field of study.

2. Talk about the positive experiences you had at college so far.

3. Say why you feel you would benefit from a move to the new college. Back this up with examples and your own reasoning.

4. What do you want from your new college? How will it help you to succeed? What do you ultimately want to achieve?

5. Tie it all together with a concluding paragraph.

The Best Ways to End a Letter

When it comes to ending letters, most of us already know about using “Yours Sincerely” and “Yours Faithfully.” When I was at school, we were told to sign off friendly letters with the former, and business letters with the latter, but nowadays, opinions seem to have changed. Many people say “Yours Sincerely” is too formal, even for business purposes, and since email seems to have its own etiquette, everyone is a bit confused as to the best way to sign off a letter or email.

Most people seem to feel not offering any salutation at the end of a message is a trifle too abrupt. Personally, I don’t mind, but I have come across people who are offended when I fail to use a closing phrase, so I’m a little more cautious these days.

With a little help from experience and Uncle Google, I’ve tracked down a whole bunch of tips on how to close a letter. As I suspected, it’s all about context.

Formal Business Letters

I still like “Yours Faithfully” in this context, especially when you’re writing a formal letter. However, it does seem a little stilted for email sign-offs, even formal ones.

After doing a bit of reading, I found most people don’t mind “Regards” or “Best Regards.” I can’t sincerely offer “best” regards to absolutely everyone. Surely some people have to get second-best regards, so I settle for “Regards” and hope for the best.

There are forms of the “Regards” sign-off that irritate me, but not everyone else, so presumably it’s acceptable. “Warmest Regards” or “Warm Regards” strikes me as slightly patronizing and insincere, especially when it comes from someone who can’t possibly have any feelings, warm or otherwise, about me. As for “Kind Regards,” I may not be in need of kindness, and there are better ways to show it if I am. I certainly wouldn’t use any of these for a job application letter, even in email format. Thanking the reader for considering my application seems courteous, and I’d follow it with the traditional “Yours Faithfully,” because it’s a safe bet.

Informal and Semi-Formal Business Emails

Intra and inter-office email is the norm these days. Your boss will email you an instruction, a colleague will ask you for help via email, or you may have received something that’s helpful to you. Sometimes you deal with emails from suppliers’ reps with whom you have a friendly business relationship, or you may be dealing with regular clients in a relatively friendly and informal context.

You can be a lot more relaxed now, but not too relaxed. Apparently, “Cheers” is becoming quite popular, and some use “Warmly,” “Best” or “Very Best.” I will be unashamedly biased here. None of these is particularly appropriate. “Cheers” is plain silly, and sounds like you’re about to hit the bar rather than the boardroom, “Warmly” just sounds wrong, and the last two could at least have been followed by a “Regards.” It just looks lazy.

“Thank You,” “Thanks” and “Thanks Again” proved to be surprisingly controversial. Although most people agreed they were fine if you were thanking someone for something they’d already done, many said thanking someone after asking them for something was patronizing.

I disagree. I used to have a colleague who used to sign off “Thanking You in Advance,” and I used to think it terribly clever, if stuffy. I still think if you know someone is going to work because of what you asked them to do, it’s polite to thank them. It’s your call.

You can be reasonably creative with informal business mails. There’s nothing wrong with “Congratulations on clinching that deal!” or “Wishing you every success in your new venture.” If relationships are friendly enough, and the occasion is appropriate, a heartfelt “You’re an angel, thanks a million,” may be appropriate. That’s the key. Keep it appropriate. “xxoooxx” is NOT appropriate for a business letter.

Friendly Letters

Now that we’ve discussed the idea of sign-offs being appropriate, you’ll understand what I mean when I say these need to be appropriate too. You wouldn’t sign a letter to your Aunty June “xxxoooxxx,” if you’ve only met her twice in your life and she’s finally sent you a birthday present for the first time. “Yours Sincerely” is perfect for this distant contact.

Your letter is presumably not all about you, so personalizing your greeting shows you care. What are you wishing this person? “Hope you have a great European holiday,” “Happy to hear you’re settled. Enjoy it!”, “Thinking of you,” and “Wishing you luck with the exams!” are only a sampling of your options. Perhaps you have something to thank them for. “Thanks for everything,” may be unoriginal, but at least it shows appreciation. Your mom, on the other hand, may settle for nothing less than “Lots of love,” “Tons of love,” or other greetings conveying enormous amounts of love.

The days of signing off friendly letters to people you know well with “Yours Sincerely” have been left behind together with chalk boards and other educational antiquities. Be creative! Be sincere! Give your friend, family member or romantic interest your very best wishes for whatever situation they’re in or express how you feel about them. Do you want to give your friend a virtual hug? “Hugs” is a lovely sign-off, at least I think so…

(Photo courtesy of Martin)

The Best Words to Describe Yourself in an Interview

Your job interview places you in quite a dilemma. You can’t be overly modest and put yourself down, but you also can’t brag like crazy, or you’ll end up looking egotistical. You’ll be asked a lot of questions about yourself. Which words should you use?

Recruiters do like to see a touch of modesty. There’s something about a know-it-all that sets anyone’s teeth on edge. The company will also want to know how you’ll fit in with bosses and colleagues. They’ll be looking for qualitative information that isn’t to be found in your resume. Here are some statements that recruiters love:

“I am eager to learn.”
“I am determined.”
“I never give up until I get something right.”
“I get on well with all kinds of people.”
“I like to keep a positive attitude.”
“Hard work doesn’t bother me. I actually like it.”
“I enjoy facing challenges.”
“I like everything I do to be well-organized.”

Of course, if any of these statements don’t apply, you shouldn’t use them. If you get the job, people will soon see you weren’t being truthful. The above statements apply to any job and they indicate you’ll be a cheerful, hardworking employee. But there are a few extras you can mention in specific types of jobs.

Best Words for Customer-Service, Sales or Marketing Interviews

Let’s be frank, not everyone is suited for customer service. No matter what company is interviewing you, they will want to know you’ll be good for their image. That means looking neat, but not overdressed, having good posture, being pleasant, and being well-spoken. Try these lines to describe yourself if questions arise where you can utilize them.

“I can keep my cool under pressure.”
“I don’t easily lose my temper.”
“I’m good at multi-tasking.”
“I enjoy meeting new people every day.”
“I love making people’s day.”
“I believe customers are the most important part of any business.”
“If necessary, I can be assertive without being rude.”

Do you get where this is going? Recruiters want to know you can handle having two people waiting for you while the phone is ringing, and another customer is being unreasonable and rude, while still being unruffled.

They also want to know you’re an organizer. Can you keep track of several tasks for specific customers in a disciplined way? For example, a sales rep may get a call, have to get information, call back, record the order, get the order dispatched, correctly invoiced, and call the customer again to follow up. They must do this for several customers at once, so things can get pretty chaotic unless they’re smart organizers.

In marketing, they also want to know you’re people-oriented and organized, but they’ll want to know more about the creative aspects too. Try these options for describing yourself:

“I love turning great ideas into reality.”
“I’ve done a few freelance projects, and I’ve brought my portfolio.”
“I find people and their opinions fascinating.”
“I really enjoy reading about and learning from marketing success stories.”

Best Words for Accounting or Administrative Interviews

Apart from the things we looked at in the generic statements, there are some extra statements recruiters like.

“I’m a perfectionist.”
“Organizing data so that it makes sense is rewarding for me.”
“I’m a methodical person.”
“I like working systematically.”

As you can see, you’re demonstrating a different set of qualities. You like getting things done in a calm and organized way. You crunch away at your work according to a specific system, and you like being part of that system because it results in useful, condensed information of some sort.

Best Words for Management Interviews

I’m going to be brutally honest here. Most of us do not walk out of college into highly-paid managerial jobs, and if you don’t know what to say at the interview, you’re not ready. Besides, there are more kinds of managers than you can shake a stick at, and each of them requires different personal qualities.

I’ve interviewed a lot of people for minor managerial posts, and all I can say is it depends on your skill, experience, expectations (salary, etc.) and whether you’ll fit into the organization’s management style. How you dress for your interview matters a lot. Play safe and stick to understated, yet smart clothing. Ladies, not too much makeup or perfume please; my apologies if this offends you, but this is the real world.

Be true to Yourself

If you don’t feel you can honestly say any of these things, don’t. You must be able to back your statements up with evidence from your life. “I’m very determined. For example, I….”

You should also ask yourself whether you’ll be happy in a job where you have to pretend to be someone other than who you really are and whether you’ll even be able to do it. You probably won’t. What do you get? Short service and a bad reputation are the two things no future employer is going to like. Look to a field you’ll enjoy and excel at instead.

10 Great Pieces of Advice About Editing

If you’re lucky, you know someone who can act as your editor, but most of us end up having to edit our own editing. There’s just one problem: it’s really hard to spot mistakes you made yourself. You might think some commercial editing software can help you, and although I’ll admit some of these are pretty good at picking up certain errors, none of them will find them all. You can believe me. I’ve tried a lot of them with hope in my heart. To test them, I feed them work I know is packed with errors, and I still haven’t found one able to find all of them. I guess this leads me to my first piece of advice:

Never Trust Editing Software

It’s actually quite comforting to know there are some things a machine can’t do effectively: writing is one of them, editing is another. Don’t rely on spell checkers, grammar checkers or any other writing programs to catch all of your errors. At least your eyes and your brain will never be made redundant by a machine. The Matrix needs us.

Let It Lie for a While

The worst possible time to try and edit something you’ve written is right after you write it. I find the greater the distance in time between me and my written work, the more effectively I’m able to edit it. It’s as if it becomes someone else’s work. I can read it impartially and with fresh eyes, picking out mistakes I previously missed. 24 hours is the absolute minimum, and 48 hours is even better. Do I practice what I preach? Ahem…

Read It Aloud

Yes, I know it feels dorky. Just pretend you’re a TV news reader or the narrator for a documentary. Put on your best “announcer” voice and read it as if it were a script. You can also have a program read it to you with the Word Counter proofread feature. (If you don’t see it above the text area, go to “options” and then click on “buttons”) Does anything make you falter? Are there sentences that sound weird? Did you need to pause at a place where there was no punctuation mark? These are areas that probably need tweaking, even if you can’t actually put your finger on the reason why they’re wrong.

Trust Your Instincts

It gets harder when you’re editing someone else’s work. You don’t want to offend them by making unnecessary changes. Sometimes, things are said in a way you wouldn’t have done it. Is it wrong? Maybe not, but I’d still advise an adjustment. When I edit, I can’t always say exactly why I changed this or that sentence, but in time, I’ve learned that my instincts are often right. It’s better to make an unnecessary change than to skip a change just because you aren’t sure how to explain it.

Track Changes

When editing another person’s work, track changes so they can decide if they want to accept your judgment or not. Then create a “clean” version (after saving the “changes tracked” one), and check again. I often find I pick up additional errors. Don’t ask me why. Maybe one doesn’t see everything the first time around. With your own work, there’s no need to track changes, but the final proofread rule still applies.

Look out for Ambiguity

You can be ambiguous without actually making a grammatical error. You know what you meant. Did you say what you meant? Imagine you know nothing about the topic and are reading about it for the first time. Does it make sense?

Pay Extra Attention to Long Sentences

The longer the sentence, the more likely it’ll contain an error. Have you put a comma where a period would be better? Is your thought presented in a crisp, clear way, or have you become tangled up in your own words?

Does Everything You Have Written Contribute?

When writing an essay, you’re trying to get a point across. Anything that doesn’t actually contribute to the point is redundant. Even in creative writing, there has to be a reason for everything you have said. You could be contributing to the atmosphere or providing background, but if what you’ve said does not contribute something, it’s just padding that waters down your prose.

Beware of Punctuation

It’s worth studying how to use punctuation marks. Commas, semi-colons, colons and dashes are often used incorrectly. Have you used them correctly? When in doubt, check. If you’re still not sure, rephrase.

Know Your Vices

When editing your own work, it’s good to know what mistakes you commonly make. Since you probably make them without even realizing it, have someone who knows their stuff give some of your writing a look over to point them out. Ask questions and learn to identify your slips. You’ll probably find your slips a few times before the lesson sinks in.

(Photo courtesy of Matt Hampel)

How Many Words Is War and Peace?

Leo Tolstoy’s historical novel on the Napoleonic invasion of Russia has become a byword for long books. If someone talks about doing something in the time it takes to read War and Peace, you can be sure that they mean it’s going to take quite a long time, and if your teacher comments that he or she wanted an essay from you, not War and Peace, your essay was way too long.

War and Peace is considered Tolstoy’s masterwork and a significant contribution to literature, but I must admit that though I’ve tried a couple of times, I’ve never made it through the whole thing. The philosophical passages that make up much of the book are heavy going. If you have read this book, give yourself a medal and a pat on the back. You deserve it.

How many words are there in War and Peace?

War and Peace has 587,287 words, making it more than ten times longer than your NaNoWriMo novel. Tolstoy completed his first draft in 1863, but he later spent three years rewriting most of it. One would think after spending so much time on one book, Tolstoy would have been too exhausted to write anymore, but he went on to write Ana Karenina, which was published in 1877, as well as several other novels.

Is War and Peace the longest novel ever?

Remembering War and Peace was written as a four-volume set with two epilogs, it’s fair if we include some series. If we do that, we come across several famously lengthy stories. The Harry Potter series consists of more than one million words. The word count for the Wheel of Time series by Robert Jordan takes the record: 4,410,036 words! Just imagine writing more than four million words.

Did you think that The Lord of the Rings would be near the top of the list? Think again! Tolkien managed to write his classic in “just” 481,103 words. If it’s one of your favorites, you now know something about it that you didn’t know before.

How Heavy Is War and Peace?

The actual weight of the book depends on the edition and whether or not it’s paperback or hardback. As the above photo shows, the hardback version can weigh almost 4 pounds (3 lbs, 14 oz). Of course, paperbacks would weigh much less.

How Many Pages is War and Peace?

The 587,287 words in War and Peace end up being 1,215 pages. Again, the page number will vary from edition to edition due to different sized pages and print used.

Translating War and Peace

Tolstoy was, of course, a Russian author, so for us to be able to read his novel, it first had to be translated into English. This was done for the first time in 1885 by Clara Bell, who translated it from the French version. This re-translated translation was far from perfect, and ten further translations into English have been done since.

War and Peace has been translated into German, French, Spanish, Dutch, Finnish, Swedish, Korean, Albanian and Czech. You must respect all these brave translators; what a massive job to tackle!

Interestingly, a large portion of the book is written in French, but at the time, the nobility in Russia often spoke French as a matter of course, and some of them could barely speak Russian.

Is War and Peace a novel?

Tolstoy himself said his book was not really a novel in the truest sense of the word. Although he has woven fictional characters into the narrative, he carefully researched real-life events by interviewing people and reading first-hand accounts of the French invasion of Russia. Only the first half of War and Peace deals with fictional characters; the rest consists mostly of essays on war, power, and history.

Tolstoy didn’t agree with the way military history is recorded and tried to get closer to the real events by portraying them through the eyes of real and fictional characters. The names of over 160 people who lived during that time are mentioned in his work.

What makes Tolstoy so special as a writer?

Apart from having written an extremely long book, Tolstoy was admired for his writing style. Just as movie cameras give us an overview of a scene, pan in, and pan out, so Tolstoy took readers from the “big picture” to the personal experiences of his characters and back again. This style of writing was relatively new, and Tolstoy is considered to be its master. In addition, he wanted people to be able to accurately visualize scenes, so he included a wealth of detail.

In the last part of his book, where he increasingly looked at philosophies and facts, he managed to weave his essays into the story. Some abridged versions have taken these, and the second part of the epilog, which consisted solely of essays, out.

Is it literary sacrilege to edit Tolstoy? Well, it’s a long book, and not all of it is really a “story.” Even when Tolstoy was still alive, abridged versions of his work were produced, presumably with his permission.

A little more about the man behind War and Peace

Tolstoy was born Lev Nikolayevitch Tolstoy in 1828. He was born into the privileged aristocratic class and had the title of Count. In his younger days, he was a typical, dissolute aristocrat, but his first-hand experience of war, his travels, and his reading led him to a spiritual crisis and reawakening. He became a fervent Christian and a pacifist whose works inspired the likes of Gandhi. He died in 1910 at the ripe old age of 82.

(Photo courtest of Jill Clardy)

Can You Start a Sentence With “But?”

Today, I am here to set you free from one of the shibboleths of grammar. You will be liberated! I certainly was. At school, we were taught you should never, ever, under any circumstances start a sentence with a conjunction. That rules out starting sentences with either “and” or “but” when writing. I faithfully learned the rule. I became positively angry when I read books in which otherwise excellent writers seemed to make this faux pas. How could they be so sloppy?

One day, I decided to settle the matter once and for all. I would find an authoritative reference to back up what I had learned, and I would send it to someone who had just argued you can start a sentence with “but.”

Being Wrong Can Make You Happy

Once I started to check, I quickly realized I was going to be proved wrong. People, including some of the greatest writers of all time, have been starting sentences with “and” and “but” for hundreds of years. Of course, there are style guides that discourage it, but it’s perfectly acceptable to begin a sentence with “but” when writing. I was thrilled! That very day, I started peppering my writing with sentences starting with conjunctions. But one shouldn’t go overboard! See what I did there? Hah!

Using any stylistic quirk too frequently spoils your writing. By all means, start sentences with “but” from time to time, but remember that “but” also belongs after a comma. I did it again, didn’t I?

When Should You Consider Starting a Sentence With “But”?

“Contrary to what your high school English teacher told you, there’s no reason not to begin a sentence with but or and; in fact, these words often make a sentence more forceful and graceful. They are almost always better than beginning with however or additionally.” (Professor Jack Lynch, Associate Professor of English, Rutgers University, New Jersey)

Thank you, professor! I’ll admit to using “however,” but being lazy, I really do prefer the word “but” to begin a sentence when given a choice. “Additionally” is just awful, and I flinch every time I start a sentence with it. It seems so pompous!

The professor also confirms starting with the conjunction can make your writing more forceful. Remember, you don’t always want to be forceful. Sometimes sentence flow is more appropriate. But a choppy “but” at the start of a sentence certainly does seem to add emphasis when that’s what you’re looking for.

People Are Going to Argue This With You

Just as I once was a firm believer in the “never start a sentence with and or but” non-rule, you’ll come across enslaved souls who have been taught the very same non-rule. Where can they turn for confirmation and comfort? The Bible is always a good place. Refer them to Genesis Chapter 1 for sentences starting with “and.”

For a sentence starting with “but,” you may have to read a little further – all the way to Genesis 8:1: “But God remembered Noah and all the wild animals and the livestock that were with him in the ark, and he sent a wind over the earth, and the waters receded.”

Looking around online, I see some arguing that using the Bible as a work of English literature is pushing the envelope. I beg to differ, but perhaps as the world’s greatest bestseller, it’s a bit too commercial for them. Let’s take them to the real authority: the notoriously stuffy and pedantic, Fowler’s Modern English Usage. It’s seen as the authoritative book on English Grammar, and if they won’t believe it, they’re never going to believe anyone.

If they’re trying to find a comeback, you can always help them out. But they won’t be impressed with the reference you give them because I’m ready to bet you anything they’ve never have heard of Quackenbos!

“A sentence should not commence with the conjunctions and, for, but, or however…. ” (George Payn Quackenbos, An Advanced Course of Composition and Rhetoric, 1854)

Let’s sum up that argument, ladies and gentlemen of the jury. We have the Bible, a host of brilliant writers, and Fowler’s Modern English Usage vs… Quackenbos. I’ll see your Quackenbos and I’ll raise you an Albert Einstein. Oops, we’ve gone from law to poker. Please pardon the mixed metaphors. Of course, Shakespeare also occasionally mixed metaphors, but we’ll go into that another time, shall we?

Why Were Students Taught This Non-Rule Rule?

Why were we taught this non-rule rule about not starting sentences with conjunctions? Several authorities seem to think it was done to prevent school kids from writing as they often talk:

“I went to my friend’s house yesterday. And we decided to go to the mall. And while we were there we saw a whole bunch of our friends. And they were just hanging out like we were. And because we didn’t have any money that was all we could do, really.”

“But then John said he’d had a birthday, and we could all go for ice creams. But when we got to the ice-cream parlor, he found that he had left his wallet at home. But that didn’t stop us from having a good time together while teasing John that he owed us an ice-cream.”

You have to admit, that’s a bit much. So to close, we quote Oscar Wilde, “Everything in moderation, including moderation.”

What Are Mnemonics? (With Examples)

Mnemonics quite possibly got me through college. If you don’t use mnemonics yet, you should consider doing so. This method is one of the best ways to memorize large chunks of information in an abbreviated form that triggers your memory.

Mnemonics can be acronyms or they can be little rhymes or mental images, and they’re used as a way to remember things. Did you ever learn the rhyme: “Thirty days hath September, April, June and November? All the rest have thirty-one excepting February alone…?” If you know the rhyme, you’ll always be able to remember how many days there are in any given month and you are already using mnemonics.

That’s quite a complex mnemonic. Most of them are much easier and shorter. In fact, they can consist of a single “word” or a sentence in which the first letter of every word prompts the memory. A mnemonic can even be a mental image you use to call up information.

How can mnemonics help you in your studies? Have you ever noticed how difficult it can be to remember absolutely everything about a topic when under the pressure of answering exam questions? Sometimes, we forget to mention things we actually know, and because we omit these points, we lose marks. What a waste!

Remembering in the Correct Order

Sometimes, we not only have to remember a whole lot of things, but we also have to remember them in the right order. For example, if we are asked to list the planets of the solar system from the nearest to the sun to the furthest, we have to remember that Mercury is the closest, followed by Venus, Earth, Mars, Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, Neptune and Pluto (even though it’s no longer a planet, but that’s another discussion).

That’s nine things to remember in the correct order! Is there an easy way? Take the first letter of every planet name, and we have “M,V,E,M,J,S,U,N and P”. That doesn’t make a word, but we could make a sentence in which each word starts with the letters we want in the correct order. You can get creative and make up your own sentence, or you can just remember this famous one: “My Very Easy Method: Just Set Up Nine Planets!”

In the exam room, you simply use your rough work paper to jot down the first letter of every word, and from there, it’s easy to get 100% for that question.

Remember Keywords for Longer Answers

Essay questions can be challenging, and your teachers will be looking for several points in your answer. If you have mnemonics to help you, you’ll be able to remember all the information you should cover. How can you describe the topics you need to discuss using only one word? Clearly, you need to pick out a keyword that will tell you what to write about in each paragraph.

As an example, business students might be asked what factors characterize effective goal-setting. There’s a common mnemonic that works for that. Goals should be SMART. The letters stand for: “Specific, Measurable, Achievable, Realistic, Time-bound”. Now you can write a paragraph about each of these characteristics and walk away with full marks!

Making Mental Associations

This really depends on you and your frame of reference. What do you think of when you hear a specific word? If something springs to mind, it can be a great way to learn and remember terminology or strange words.

When I was studying environmental science, I had to learn the Latin names of hundreds of plants. One of them, Wachendorfia thyrsiflora, is a plant that grows near water. It also has pretty flowers. How did I remember it? Well, I called it “Washerwoman thirsty flowers” in my own mind, which means more than two decades later, I still remember the Latin name of this plant as well as its preferred habitat. Simple prompts like “sounds like a disease” can help you to remember complex terminology by association.

Pictures and Songss

Some people like to compose a picture in their minds or associate information with their favorite songs. In the end, whatever gets your memory triggered so that you can spit out the appropriate information on demand is just fine!

When I had to learn the elements on the periodic table in the correct order, I simply made up a sort of a song that went: “HHe (said like a laugh, and reminding me that the first two elements are Hydrogen and Helium). Li Bee! BCNOFNe! (exclaimed in various tones of voice)” and so on. It was like a rhyme, and saying it made me chuckle, so remembering all those elements in the correct order wasn’t difficult at all.

You can use whatever nudges your memory, rings your bells, or blows your hair back. Learning to use mnemonics is actually great fun, and it makes taking tests much easier. It doesn’t replace learning, but it does help you to remember all the things you did learn when you need to. Best of all, there are no rules. I’ll even admit to composing a few mnemonics that were actually insults to some of my teachers. They never knew about it, and they still liked my exam answers.

Go forth! Enjoy yourself, and I’m willing to bet you’ll love the way mnemonics make remembering a breeze.