The Top 10 Most Difficult-to-Spot Writing Mistakes

Writing is like trying to juggle flaming knives while riding a unicycle – it requires skill, precision, and a healthy dose of madness. But even the most seasoned writers can get a little lost in the word jungle, and typos and grammatical blunders can sneak up on them like ninjas in the night. So, without further ado, let’s take a look at the top 10 most difficult-to-spot writing mistakes that even the sharpest writers sometimes struggle to catch!

  1. Misplaced modifiers: These are words or phrases placed too far away from the word they are supposed to modify, leading to confusion or ambiguity. For example,

    “He served his guests the meat on silver platters that he inherited from his grandfather.”

    Did he inherit the platters or the meat from his grandfather? We may never know, but we do know that it’s not a good idea to inherit meat – it tends to get a little ripe. To avoid confusion, we can correct the sentence by moving the modifier closer to the word it’s meant to describe:

    “He served the meat on silver platters inherited from his grandfather to his guests.”

    Ah, much better! Now we know that it was the silver platters that were inherited, not the meat. Misplaced modifiers, you may have infiltrated our sentences, but with a little bit of editing, we can show you who’s boss!

  2. Wordiness: Wordiness is like a party guest who just won’t stop talking – they drone on and on, taking up space and making you wish you could escape. Writers who are afflicted by wordiness use too many words to express a simple idea, turning a straightforward message into a labyrinthine maze. For example, take this sentence:

    “In spite of the fact that he was feeling under the weather, he still managed to make it to the meeting.”

    Geez, that’s like wrapping a present in a hundred layers of duct tape! To cut to the chase, you could simply say,

    “Although he was sick, he still attended the meeting.”

    See? Short, sweet, and to the point – just like we like it. For more examples, check out our comprehensive 330 examples of wordiness.

  3. Redundancy: Redundancy is like saying the same joke twice – it might get a chuckle the first time, but by the second, you’re just beating a dead horse. Writers who are guilty of redundancy repeat themselves unnecessarily, turning an already clear message into a broken record. For example, take this sentence:

    “The car collided with the truck, and the collision was quite loud.”

    Well, no duh, Sherlock! Instead, you could say,

    “The car collided with the truck, and the impact was quite loud.”

    Boom! No need to repeat yourself – we heard you the first time. So let’s ditch the redundancy and make room for some fresh material!

  4. Inconsistent tense: Inconsistent tense is like a high-speed car chase, only instead of thrilling action, it just leaves readers feeling dizzy and disoriented. Writers who switch between past, present, and future tense without a clear reason are like erratic drivers on the road of language, causing confusion and chaos for their passengers. For instance, take this sentence:

    “Yesterday, I walk to the store and I see my friend. She tells me she is going to the party tonight, so I decide to go too.”

    Whoa, slow down there, Speed Racer! We’re swerving from past to present to past again like a drunken butterfly. Let’s pump the brakes and get back in control:

    “Yesterday, I walked to the store and saw my friend. She told me she was going to the party tonight, so I decided to go too.”

    Ah, that’s more like it! With consistent tense, we can avoid the linguistic traffic accidents and arrive at our destination with clarity and coherence. So let’s put on our seatbelts and stick to one tense, shall we?

  5. Incorrect capitalization: Capitalization errors can make writing look unprofessional and distract readers from the message. For example,

    “the President of the united states”

    should be

    “the President of the United States.”

    You can play around with the capitalization feature on wordcounter.net.

  6. Confusing prepositions: Prepositions can be tricky to use correctly, especially for non-native speakers. For example,

    “I’m looking forward to see you”

    should be

    “I’m looking forward to seeing you.”

    Why? In the first, incorrect sentence, the preposition “to” is followed by the base form of the verb “see,” which is not correct. When the preposition “to” is followed by a verb, the verb should be in its gerund form, which is the “-ing” form.

    Therefore, “seeing” is the correct form of the verb to use after the preposition “to” in this sentence, making it “I’m looking forward to seeing you.”

  7. Passive voice Passive voice can be a stumbling block in writing, as it can make sentences longer and harder to understand. For example,

    “The cake was eaten by John”

    is in passive voice and makes it unclear who actually ate the cake. To make it clearer and more direct, use active voice:

    “John ate the cake”

    This version clearly states who did the action and is more concise and understandable. Using active voice can make your writing more engaging and effective.

  8. Incorrectly spelled homophones: Mixing up homophones can leave your writing in shambles, like a house of cards collapsing in the wind. Don’t let your words blow away your message! For example, if you’re writing an email to your boss, you don’t want to say

    “I’m to tired to come in today.”

    That’s just asking for trouble. You meant to say

    “I’m too tired to come in today.”

    See the difference? One little letter can make all the difference between being a professional and being a goofball.

    Other commonly confused homophones include “there/their/they’re,” “here/hear,” and “its/it’s.” But don’t fret – use our spell-check feature.

  9. Incorrectly used words: Some words have similar meanings but are not interchangeable. For instance, “imply” and “infer” are two words that are often used interchangeably, but they have different meanings. The speaker implies something to the listener, while the listener infers something from what the speaker said.

    Similarly, “compliment” and “complement” are two words that sound alike but have different meanings. If someone tells you that your outfit looks nice, they are giving you a compliment. If they tell you that your shoes complement your outfit, they are saying that your shoes go well with your outfit.

    Using the wrong word can create confusion or change the meaning of a sentence entirely, so it’s important to use the correct word in the right context. Don’t worry, though, even the best writers make mistakes sometimes. Just make sure to double-check your work.

  10. Misuse of commas: Commas can be tricky, like trying to juggle water balloons without getting wet. One little misstep and you’re in for a soggy surprise. For example,

    “Let’s eat Grandma!”

    is a far cry from

    “Let’s eat, Grandma!”

    – the former being a proposition that would make Hannibal Lecter blush. To avoid turning your writing into a horror show, make sure to use commas to separate items in a list, clauses in a sentence, and introductory or parenthetical phrases.

While mistakes in writing are as common as a Kardashian on Instagram, that doesn’t mean you can’t avoid them like a paparazzi. Proper grammar and punctuation can help you steer clear of confusion and awkwardness in your writing. So, before you hit that send button, make sure to proofread and review your work. Because let’s face it, even the queen Beyoncé needs a backup dancer to make sure she’s on point.

4 Simple Tips for Great Writing

Writing the English language is just as much an art as it is a science. No doubt, your schoolteachers gave you rules to stick to in class. But out in the real world, there’s more leeway than you may have realized.

Not to worry. You don’t need a master’s degree in publishing to be a good writer. If you follow these four tips anytime you write and edit, you’ll be able to turn out a quality email, report, or article.

1. Be consistent

Some aspects of good writing are rules. Others are style choices. So how can you tell which is which?

The easiest way is to pick and follow a style guide.

There are many style guides for English: AP, APA, CMOS (a.k.a., Chicago), MLA, Oxford … It depends what country you’re writing for and what you’re writing about. If you’re writing within a school or company, you may be asked to follow what’s called a house style guide, that is, a guide created specifically for that entity. Some newspapers like The Economist or The Guardian even stick to their own.

Style guide name (Short form): Target audience: Used in: Notes:
AP American journalists and reporters News, media, broadcasting, magazine publishing, marketing, and public relations. The most popular style for casual writing and anything online. Most bloggers use this style.
APA Students, academics, professionals Agriculture, biology, business, chemistry, education, language and linguistics, nursing, psychology, social and behavioral sciences. Focuses on clarity of communication and “word choice that best reduces bias in language”.
CMOS Academic publishers, book editors and authors, fiction writers Humanities, social, historical and political sciences. Specifically focuses on American English. Turabian follows CMOS.
MLA Students and researchers Arts and humanities, especially English, writing, literature, and related subjects like theater or film. Focuses on brevity and clarity.
Oxford Oxford University staff, British students and writers. An in-house guide that has grown into a general writing guide for students and editors. Also known as “New Hart’s Rules”.

1.1 Which style guide should you pick?

In the best case: the style that your readership considers correct.

Of course, this is not always possible. That’s why it’s important to get into your readers’ heads. For example, if the target audience of your text is teachers or professors, they will prefer the CMOS style to the AP style. For most other people, however, AP is more appropriate. This is true not only for people who write in AP style every day, such as journalists and PR professionals but also for people who don’t care what stylebook you use. Most online articles the average person reads on a daily basis are in AP style. If you stick to that they will most likely consider it “correct.”

1.2 Guidelines evolve

What’s more, some rules and guidelines change with the times. For example, until 2019, “African-American” took a hyphen per the AP Stylebook. Today, you’d write it without the hyphen: “African American.”

That’s why it’s important to keep up with style guide updates, which are sometimes issued as often as annually.

Don’t worry too much if learning the details of a certain style sounds complicated. Once you’re familiar with your style guide, many aspects of the English language are unlikely to change. For example, sentences will always end with one of three punctuation marks: a period, an exclamation point, or a question mark.

By getting a solid grasp of grammar rules as well as familiarizing yourself with style choices, you’ll be on the road to rockstar writing in no time.

For a comparison of AP and Chicago, check out our post here.

1.3 Oxford comma yes or no?

Last but not least, you might wonder, whether you should use the Oxford comma (also called the serial comma).

You can read more about it here.

2. Use the active voice

In English, sentences typically follow the subject–verb–object pattern: “Emilio caught the ball.” This sentence is written in the active voice, meaning the subject is acting on the object.

However, you could also write, “The ball was caught by Emilio.” This sentence conveys the same idea, but it’s written in the passive voice. The object has become the subject.

Although there are cases in which passive voice can work well or even better than the active voice, most of the time, active voice is usually preferable. Why?

For one thing, the active voice takes more words to say the same thing. If you’re keen to keep your readers’ eyes from tiring or save space, active voice rules.

Additionally, passive voice can sound vague. Take, for example, the following sentence: “The vase was smashed.”

Who exactly smashed the vase? We don’t know. That’s why the passive voice is used in certain instances where the writer wants to eliminate tagging a subject with responsibility. Examples include law and science.

3. Punctuate right

Punctuation marks can make a huge difference in meaning when stringing words together in a sentence. But getting punctuation right can be tricky.

Although you probably learned the basics of punctuation in grade school, there’s more to the marks than what you likely learned. That’s because like most aspects of the English language, punctuation is both art and science.

Here’s a list of the basics.

Apostrophes make contractions and show possession.

No, you cant eat Sashas’ pie. ()
No, you can’t eat Sasha’s pie. ()

Colons introduce important information. They’re a way to say, “Now hear this!”

The reception menu includes: fish, chicken, and a vegetarian dish. ()
The reception menu includes fish, chicken, and a vegetarian dish. ()

I found the book he wanted: a dusty, leather-bound dinosaur. ()

Javier gave me the news: The zombies had taken over. ()

Keep in mind that colons are used differently in American and British English, so again, check your style guide.

Commas indicate pauses between words, phrases, and ideas. There’s an ongoing debate between people who prefer serial, or Oxford, commas and people who don’t. The important thing is to pick an approach and stick to it.

I need tape, paper, and markers. ()
I need tape, paper and markers. ()

The president introduced his wife Janice. ( unless the president is a bigamist)
The president introduced his wife, Janice. ()

Seo-Jun was born in Seoul, Korea in 1999. ()
Seo-Jun was born in Seoul, Korea, in 1999. ()

We went out to dinner, then we saw a movie. (: a comma splice)
We went out to dinner. Then we saw a movie. ()

Dashes come in different styles to serve different purposes. They’re different from hyphens.

That vase—the one in the corner needs more water. ()
That vase—the one in the corner—needs more water. ()

I found the book he wanted—a dusty, leather-bound dinosaur. ()

Hyphens are short lines that, among other things, turn two or more words into one idea.

My brother needs a conditioner for his bleach blond hair. ()
My brother needs a conditioner for his bleach-blond hair. ()

It wasn’t your run of the mill mill. ()
It wasn’t your run-of-the-mill mill. ()

Semicolons are usually used to join two related sentences. But the fashion is to avoid them and simply write two separate sentences.

Don’t eat that; because it’ll make you sick. ()
Don’t eat that, it’ll make you sick. ()
Don’t eat that; it’ll make you sick. ()
Don’t eat that. It’ll make you sick. ()

4. Separate soundalikes

The English language contains many words that sound like other words but mean something entirely different. These words are called homophones, and even current spellcheckers don’t always know the difference. That’s why you need to be aware of the most commonly confused words.

Here are some commonly confused word pairs. If you dig deeper, you can find many more to watch out for.

  1. You’re/Your:
    • You’re is a contraction of “you are.”
      • “You’re such an attentive learner!”
    • Your is the possessive form of you.
      • “Your reading speed depends on your ability to concentrate and process information quickly.”
  2. To/Too:
    • To is a preposition.
      • “She went to the gym.”
    • Too means “as well.”
      • “He went to the gym too.”
  3. Affect/Effect:
    • “To affect” means to influence or to change in some measure.
      • “Your mood can affect your relationship.”
    • An effect is a result, consequence, or outcome.
      • “Yoga had a positive effect on my mood swings.”
  4. Then/Than:
    • Then is used as an adverb, noun, or adjective to show the order of how things happened.
      • “He turned on the mic, then she started singing.”
    • Than is a subordinating conjunction for comparisons.
      • “He’s taller than her.”
  5. Accept/Except:
    • Accept is a verb that means “to take” or “to receive.”
      • “He accepted the painting as a gift.”
    • Except is used as a preposition or conjunction to mean but or to form an exception:
      • “They looked at the whole property, except the garden.”
  6. Compliment/Complement :
    • “To compliment” means to say something nice about someone or something.
      • “She complimented their effort.”
    • You can also use compliment as a noun to describe “a polite expression of praise or admiration.”
      • “She received a beautiful compliment for her painting.”
    • “To complement” means “to enhance” or “to complete.”
      • “Those red rims complement your car perfectly.”

Again, by following these four simple tips, you can turn out a quality piece of writing every time.

Avoiding Wordiness: 330 Examples & What to Use Instead

“A sentence should contain no unnecessary words, a paragraph no unnecessary sentences, for the same reason that a drawing should have no unnecessary lines and a machine no unnecessary parts.”
―William Strunk Jr. and E.B. White, The Elements of Style

You’ve probably come across more than one article, blog post, or product description that took way longer to get to the point.

In your frustration, you may have started skimming the piece, missing important information along the way.

Alternatively, you may have turned the page or clicked away.

Either way, you’ve wasted time, and the writer has wasted both their time and yours.

Creative writing offers a little more leeway with the use of language.

Depending on the genre in question, the setting of a story (fictional or real), or the character, flowery phrases may be appropriate to convey authenticity.

Song lyrics require an occasionally awkward turn of phrase to keep a line’s length and beat consistent with the others. The same goes for poetry in general.

Most other writing―be it journalism, business writing, or web writing―lends itself to a spare, even Spartan, style.

Unless a reader wants to be transported to another world, they probably just want you to get to the point. It’s not that they don’t want to hear what you have to say; it’s that they DO want to hear you. Right away.

Sandwiching your message between unneeded verbiage helps no one. It doesn’t make you sound smarter, clearer, or more persuasive. It’s. Just. Noise.

The next time you sit down to write, the burning question running through your mind after each period should be, “Do I really need to tell them this?”

Without further ado, here are 330 examples of common cases of wordiness (as of Nov. 12, 2020), along with shorter alternatives.

BUT: Keep a word or phrase if …

  • removing it ruins the grammatical structure.
  • it’s a key idea, fact, feeling, or description.
Number Example Use instead
1 a little bit “a bit” or “a little”
2 a number of some, many
3 a total of 12 items 12 items
4 a variety of different things a variety
5 accomplish do
6 accrue gain
7 add together add
8 add up add
9 added bonus bonus
10 addressee you
11 advance forward advance
12 advance planning planning
13 advance reservation reservation
14 advance warning warning
15 after the conclusion of after
16 all of all
17 all-time record record
18 annoyingly frustrating frustrating, annoying
19 anonymous stranger stranger
20 any and all any or all
21 apparently (Delete)
22 apportion out apportion
23 are representative of represent
24 as a matter of fact in fact
25 as far as [X] is concerned regarding (or reword the sentence)
26 as of this writing now, currently
27 as per per
28 as regards about
29 ascend up ascend
30 ask a question ask
31 at the current time now, currently
32 at the present time now, currently
33 at the same time as as
34 at the time of publication now, currently
35 at this point in time now, currently
36 ATM machine ATM
37 based on the fact that because
38 basic essentials essentials
39 basic fundementals fundementals
40 basic necessities necessities
41 basically (Delete)
42 be aware of the fact that note, understand
43 beat out beat
44 biography of her life biography
45 both agree agree
46 both of them both
47 brief jaunt jaunt
48 brief moment moment
49 brief summary summary
50 by means of by, via
51 by way of by, via
52 cameo appearance cameo
53 cheaper price cheaper or “lower price”
54 check and see check
55 circle around circle
56 clean up clean
57 click on click
58 climb up climb
59 close intimates intimates
60 close proximity near, proximity
61 close scrutiny scrutiny
62 cluster together cluster
63 colder temperature colder or “lower temperature”
64 collaborate together collaborate
65 collide into each other collide
66 combine together combine
67 come to an end end
68 comes equipped with includes, comes with, is preinstalled, is preloaded
69 comes with it right out of the box includes, comes with, is preinstalled, is preloaded
70 commence start
71 compete with each other compete
72 completely destroyed destroyed
73 completely finished finished
74 completely opposite opposite
75 completely surrounded surrounded
76 completely unanimous unanimous
77 components that make up components
78 concerning the matter of about
79 consensus of opinion consensus
80 consequently so
81 considering the fact that because, since
82 continue on continue
83 cooperate together cooperate
84 crammed close together crammed
85 currently at this time currently, now
86 dark, black sky black sky
87 debris left behind debris
88 debut of a new product product debut
89 deceptive lie lie
90 decrease in size shrink
91 Definitely (Delete)
92 depart from depart
93 descend down descend
94 describe in words describe
95 despite the fact that although, even though
96 detrimentally affect harm, hurt
97 dry desert desert
98 due to the fact that because
99 during the period during
100 each and every each
101 elements that are a part of elements
102 emit out emit
103 empty out empty
104 empty void void
105 encounter meet
106 end result result
107 endure for <length of time> endure <length of time>
108 ensure the largest amount maximize
109 ensure the least amount minimize
110 enter into (buildings) enter
111 escape from escape
112 essentially (Delete)
113 exact same same
114 exactly the same the same
115 exactly word for word exactly or “word for word” (pick one)
116 exit out of exit
117 expedite speed up
118 extremely (Delete)
119 factor that plays a role factor
120 fade away fade
121 famous celebrity celebrity
122 far away from far from
123 fill up fill
124 finish up finish
125 first and foremost foremost
126 flee from flee
127 following on after
128 for all intents and purposes (Delete)
129 for the purpose of (+ gerund) to
130 for the reason that because
131 foreign imports imports
132 forward progress progress
133 free gift gift
134 fundamental basis basis
135 fuse together fuse
136 future ahead future
137 generally (Delete)
138 give the opportunity to let, allow
139 glide smoothly glide
140 good-quality quality
141 grab onto grab
142 grow larger grow
143 has enough space on the inside to fully accommodate fits
144 has the ability to can
145 has the capacity to/for can
146 have an effect on affect, influence
147 have an impact on affect, influence
148 have got (e.g., I’ve got) have
149 have the capability to can
150 he is a man who is he is
151 head up head
152 help out help
153 high up in high in
154 hotter temperature hotter or “higher temperature”
155 how-to tutorials tutorials
156 human artifact artifact
157 I believe (Delete)
158 I feel (Delete)
159 I think that (Delete)
160 impacts that result from impacts, results
161 In a place where where
162 in a similar manner similarly
163 in a situation in which when
164 in advance of before
165 in an effort to to
166 in close proximity to close to
167 in connection with about
168 in excess of more than, over
169 in light of the fact that considering
170 in my own personal opinion in my opinion
171 in order for for
172 in order to to
173 in reference to about
174 In some ways (Delete)
175 in spite of the fact that although or though
176 in terms of regarding (or recast the sentence)
177 in the amount of for
178 in the amount of <specific amount> for <specific amount>
179 in the direction of toward (U.S.) or towards (UK)
180 in the event that if
181 in the near future soon (or be more specific about the time)
182 in view of the fact that because
183 inadvertent error error
184 increase in size grow
185 insist adamantly insist
186 is able to can
187 is capable of can
188 is located in is in
189 it could happen that may, might, can, could
190 it is often the case that often
191 it is possible that may, might, can, could
192 it is requested please
193 it’s important to note that notably
194 Jewish rabbi rabbi
195 join together join
196 jump up jump
197 laptop computer laptop
198 last for <length of time> last <length of time>
199 leak out leak
200 leave from leave
201 less than great subpar, mediocre, OK
202 less than spectacular subpar, mediocre, OK
203 lift up lift
204 linger around linger
205 lower down lower
206 mail out mail
207 make a choice choose
208 make a contribution to contribute
209 make a decision decide
210 match up match
211 merge together merge
212 methodology method
213 middle ground in between middle ground
214 minor tweaks tweaks
215 minute details minutiae
216 more better better
217 more often than not usually
218 more ways than one multiple ways
219 morph for the worse deform
220 mutual agreement agreement
221 new innovation innovation
222 not too long from now soon (or be more specific about the time)
223 not very good subpar, mediocre, OK
224 notification alert notification or alert
225 notwithstanding the fact that although, even, though
226 now pending pending
227 numerous many
228 on sale for a discounted rate “on sale,” “on discount,” or discounted
229 on the grounds that because
230 on the occasion of when
231 on the part of by
232 once used to do did (or used to)
233 one and the same the same
234 orbit around orbit
235 over the course of throughout
236 overexaggerate exaggerate
237 owing to the fact that because
238 past history history
239 period of four days four days
240 permeate through permeate
241 pick and choose pick, choose, select
242 plan out plan
243 precisely adjust fine-tune
244 present incumbent incumbent
245 prior to before
246 proceed forward proceed
247 progress forward progress
248 provide the ability to let, allow let, allow
249 provided that if
250 raise up raise
251 rarely ever rarely
252 really (Delete)
253 reconsider again reconsider
254 reflect back on reflect on
255 regardless of the fact that although, even, though
256 regress backward regress
257 rejected outcast outcast
258 related to each other related
259 relative to about
260 repeat again repeat
261 retain the same retain
262 retreat back retreat
263 return back return
264 revert back revert
265 rise up rise
266 roasting in heat roasting
267 sad lament lament
268 safe haven haven
269 same identical identical
270 scrutinize very carefully scrutinize
271 send out send
272 share in common share together
273 share the same share (or have the same)
274 shift around shift
275 shorter/longer in length shorter/longer
276 shout out shout
277 shrink smaller shrink
278 simultaneously with as
279 sink down sink
280 sit down sit
281 slam forcefully slam
282 small bits bits
283 soar up soar
284 specific details details
285 specific enough to say exactly specify
286 specific to your wants and needs customized
287 spin around spin
288 start off start
289 still remain remain
290 subsequent to after
291 sudden impulse impulse
292 tailored to fit tailored
293 take into consideration consider
294 tall skyscraper skyscraper
295 tap on tap
296 tend to (Delete)
297 test out test
298 the fact that Delete “the fact”” and/or reword the sentence.
299 the fact that it doesn’t have ”its lack of,” “its omission of” or reword the sentence.
300 the majority of most
301 the place at which where
302 the reason for because, since
303 the reason why is that because
304 the thing is that (Delete)
305 the time at which when
306 the truth is that (Delete)
307 the way in which how
308 there are times when sometimes
309 there is a chance that may, might, can, could
310 tragically sad tragic
311 trailing behind trailing
312 true fact fact
313 two opposites opposites
314 under circumstances in which when
315 unexpected surprise surprise
316 urban city city
317 used to at one time used to
318 used to in the past used to
319 utilize use
320 various (Delete)
321 vast majority majority
322 very Delete or replace with with a stronger, more accurate adjective.
323 virtually (Delete)
324 when it comes to regarding (or reword the sentence)
325 where . . . is concerned about
326 whether or not whether (unless it means regardless of whether)
327 which was when when
328 with regard to about
329 with the exception of except
330 yearly annual annual or annually

This page is constantly updated and further words and phrases are added from time to time.

  • If you want to stay in the loop, bookmark or share this page now.
  • If you want an example added to the list, feel free to comment below.

The Oxford Comma: The Splice of Life

Debates among writers, editors, teachers, and others who use English are common. One of the longest-standing debates is that over the Oxford comma, aka the serial comma.

People arguing over a punctuation mark? As silly as it sounds, it’s been going on for decades.

If you’re not aware of this debate, we don’t want you to miss out on the fun and fastidiousness. Here’s an overview of the Oxford comma and why you might choose to use it.

What is the Oxford comma?

Oxford shirt, Oxford shoes … Oxford comma. Nope, the comma’s not related. But like certain fashions, the serial comma is adored by some and hated by others.
In short, the Oxford comma is the optional comma before the final conjunction in a list or series.

Huh?

No worries; we’ll break it down for you.

When listing items in a written sentence, you use commas to separate the items, just as you’d normally pause between the items when speaking. (Note: Commas don’t always represent pauses in speech. To use commas this way is to use them incorrectly. However, in the case of listing items, there’s a parallel between verbal pauses and commas.)

Here’s an example of a sentence that contains a list of two items:

I need to buy wine and toilet paper for the party.

Let’s add one more item to that list:

I need to buy eggs, wine, and toilet paper for the party.

Aside from the odd shopping list (sounds like one crazy party!), did you notice anything unusual about that sentence? If you did, it’s probably because you’re not a supporter of the Oxford comma.

Here’s the same sentence without the Oxford comma:

I need to buy eggs, wine and toilet paper for the party.

This second version of the sentence is neither right nor wrong–just as the first isn’t either, either.

You see, English isn’t like math. The language isn’t governed 100 percent by hard rules. Whereas grammar is the science of English, style is the art of it.

And where serial commas are concerned, there are two schools of thought when it comes to style.

The philosophy of the Oxford comma is that a list should be consistent, with punctuation between each pair of items.

Those who argue against serial commas use this logic: A list of two items has no comma (e.g., I need to buy wine and toilet paper). So that shouldn’t change just because we add an item (e.g., I need to buy eggs, wine and toilet paper). The punctuation is only needed for three or more items.

The problem is that this latter reasoning doesn’t always hold up so well. You can find or come up with many examples of why the Oxford comma is usually the better choice.

Why use the Oxford comma?

Fans of the Oxford comma maintain that skipping it causes confusion in some cases. Let’s say you’re emailing a friend about some photos you took on your last vacation. You might write the following sentence:

I’ll send you some photos of my grandparents, a hitchhiker and a skunk.

The way this sentence is structured, it implies that you have some highly unusual DNA! In other words, using one comma here implies that one of your parents is the offspring of a hitchhiker and a skunk (let’s not picture the details).

But this surely wasn’t your intended meaning. And if you were to come across such a sentence by another writer, it should give you pause (pun intended).

Let’s see what happens when we add an Oxford comma:

I’ll send you some photos of my grandparents, a hitchhiker, and a skunk.

This sentence clearly states that you took photos of at least four subjects (depending on how many grandparents you captured in your shots). The hitchhiker and the skunk aren’t your grandparents.
This example illustrates why many people feel the Oxford comma should be mandatory in writing.

The history of the Oxford comma

The Oxford comma is so named because it was used at Oxford University Press, the largest university press on the planet. Ironically, British writers seem to use the Oxford comma less than Americans do, which is why it stands out in the UK as an Oxford-prescribed guideline.

Many professional writers and editors have opined on the use of the Oxford comma. Some language lovers claim that adding one comma to a sentence can’t hurt and can only help in terms of clarity. Those on the other side of the fence feel that serial commas are prissy and unnecessary.

However, consider that a 2014 lawsuit, O’Connor v. Oakhurst Dairy, revolved around a serial comma ambiguity. A list of labor activities exempt from overtime pay was open to misinterpretation. Hence, the dairy was ordered to pay $5 million in overtime wages to workers who performed the activities in the gray area.

If you’re in doubt, it’s usually worth it to add that comma.

The Oxford comma in popular style guides

So what do the big style guides have to say about such commas? Here’s a quick comparison of two major guides: Chicago and AP.

The Oxford comma according to The Chicago Manual of Style

The Chicago Manual of Style is a trustworthy guide for literature and academic writing. CMOS generally prescribes the Oxford comma, stating that it prevents confusion such as that shown above.

However, in some cases, as CMOS points out, even the Oxford comma can’t clarify a sentence. Recasting may be necessary at times. Look at this example:

I emailed my father, the president, and the director of the FBI.

In this sentence, it’s not clear as to whether your father is the president or a separate individual. In such a case, you can reword the sentence as follows:

I emailed my father as well as the president and the director of the FBI.

or

I emailed the president, the director of the FBI, and my father.

(Reordering works only if the first two items are clearly separate and your readers know that the president doesn’t head the FBI.)

The Oxford comma according to the AP Stylebook

The AP Stylebook, the style bible of journalists and online writers, says not to use the Oxford comma in a simple series unless it’s needed to prevent confusion.

This is because traditionally, printed newspapers had space concerns when it came to adding text to a layout. Eliminating a few commas throughout a story might keep a story from running over into another column or page.

But AP admits that adding a comma before the final conjunction in a list makes sense in many cases.

Oxford commas: the choice is yours

If you’re writing a professional or academic article that must follow a chosen style guide, follow the Oxford comma rule in your guide. Some company style guides even instruct writers to generally follow AP style but to buck AP and use the Oxford comma.

In your personal or general business writing, you’re free to comma as you wish. Just be aware that your friends and colleagues may comment.

As with most style guidelines, when it comes to the Oxford comma, the most important thing is to commit to using it. Anyway you splice it, it’s hard to criticize attentively produced, consistent writing.

Who vs. Whom

Who vs. Whom

Who or whom? The question trips up even grammar-lovers. And in many circles, whom is becoming obsolete, which may sadden grammar purists.

Although who and whom are similar, each serves a distinct purpose. In order to understand how to use these pronouns correctly, you’ll have to refresh yourself on sentence structure.

Once you’ve got this down and compared several examples, you’ll be able to remember how to use who and whom quite easily.

Parts of a sentence: a quick refresher

The basic parts of a sentence are the subject and the predicate. The predicate must include a verb but may also include an object.

The subject is the person or thing that acts. The verb describes the action. The object is the person or thing that’s acted upon by a verb or preposition.

Clearly, sentences can get far more complicated than this. But this is the basic structure of a sentence.

In English, the standard order of a declarative sentence, or statement, is subject—verb—object. For example:

  • Tyrone bought the pizza.
  • Maria likes Jorge.
  • My children are watching TV.
  • The Kahdims are my neighbors.
  • Our boss called the police.

We’re going to come back to these sentences further along as we explain who versus whom.

Who

Who is a pronoun that replaces or refers to the singular or plural subject of a sentence. Who can be used in a question or a statement.

This famous book title by Stieg Larsson includes who:

“The Girl Who Kicked the Hornet’s Nest”

Now, look at this headline:

“Couple who missed Royal Caribbean cruise in viral video was celebrating honeymoon”
Fox News

Here are some other examples of how to use who in a sentence:

  • Who do you think you are?
  • I wonder who’s at the door.
  • Who wants to go swimming?
  • Tell me who did this.

Now, let’s go back to our original examples and use who to form a question from each statement.

  • Who bought the pizza? (Who replaces “Tyrone.”)
  • Who likes Jorge? (Who replaces “Maria.”)
  • Who’s watching TV? (Who replaces “my children.”)
  • Who are your neighbors? (Who replaces “the Kahdims,” the subject—not “neighbors,” the object.)
  • Who called the police? (Who replaces “our boss.”)

We’ll take the idea further and develop the original examples into statements that relate to or directly answer the questions above.

  • I never found out who bought the pizza.
  • I don’t care who likes Jorge.
  • You tell me who’s watching TV!
  • I didn’t ask who your neighbors are.
  • I know who called the police.

To recap, who replaces or refers to the subject of a sentence.

Whom

Whom is a pronoun that replaces the singular or plural object of a sentence. Whom can be used in a question or a statement.

One of the most famous uses of whom is in this classic book title by Ernest Hemingway:

“For Whom the Bell Tolls”

Now, look at this headline:

“A Singer for Whom Words Always Came First”
The New York Times

Right away, you can probably sense a difference between whom and who, even if you can’t put your finger on it.

In these two examples, whom is followed by a preposition, but this isn’t always the case. With a direct object, a preposition isn’t necessary.

You’ll also notice that a clause (a sentencelike phrase including both a subject and a verb) follows whom.

Let’s look at using whom in a sentence. Here are some examples:

  • To whom am I speaking?
  • Whom are you calling?
  • Don’t tell me whom to spend time with!
  • With whom did you dance?
  • Whom did the factory hire?
  • I have no idea whom I’ll marry.
  • By whom is he standing?

Let’s go back to our original sentences. We’ll expand one of them:

  • Maria likes Jorge.
  • My children are watching TV with Nana.

To turn these sentences into questions, note the different uses of who and whom. First:

  • Who likes Jorge?
  • Whom does Maria like?

And:

  • Who’s watching TV with Nana?
  • With whom are your children watching TV?

But also:

  • Who’s watching TV with your children?
  • With whom is Nana watching TV?

To recap, whom replaces or refers to the object of a verb or preposition.

The modern use of who

In casual conversations today, you’ll hear things like:

  • Who are your kids watching TV with?
  • Who did Tyrone buy the pizza for?

This is one of those lazy-grammar habits that’s become marginally acceptable in speech and even in some writing. But if you want to be taken seriously and to come across smartly in your writing, it’s always better to use whom when it’s called for.

In fact, The New York Times addressed this who–whom laziness, or perhaps ignorance, in a 2015 blog post. You’d do well to follow their lead.

How to use who and whom correctly

Both pronouns can be used in questions or statements.

  • Who replaces the subject of a sentence.
  • Whom replaces the object of a sentence.

An easy way to determine if you should use who or whom is to see if he or him fits into the sentence. (Of course, she and her work too, but he and him sound more like who and whom, so it’s a simpler test.)

For example:

  • He bought this book. > Who bought this book?
  • Him bought this book. > Nope!
  • I gave the book to he. > Nope!
  • I gave the book to him. > To whom did you give the book?

In casual speech and writing, whom is becoming somewhat obsolete. But for formal speech and writing, always use whom when it’s called for.

Note that if you’re developing a story character who’s young or doesn’t have an advanced education, your character likely won’t be throwing whom around in their dialogue.

If you’re writing anything else, stick with whom … so a bell doesn’t toll for your reputation.

Affect vs. Effect

affect vs. effect

Don’t let the difference between affect and effect affect your self-confidence. Learning these two words is a cinch.

You might get away with not knowing the difference when speaking, as these two words are usually homophones (soundalikes). But your basic spell-checker won’t always catch a usage error if you type a correctly spelled version of a word.

In their most common usage, affect is a verb and effect is a noun. But each word can be either part of speech. Don’t worry! We’ll clear up the confusion for you.

Affect

So, is affect a verb or a noun? Well, it can be both.

But the most common definition of affect is “to alter” or “to act upon.”

Look at this headline:

“New Study Examines How Tiny Gas Pockets Affect 3D Printing”
Carnegie Mellon University

If you don’t already know the facts, there’s no way to tell whether the gas pockets make good or bad changes—or both.

Here are some more examples:

  • Alcohol affects your ability to drive.
  • Both humans and animals affect the climate.
  • My brother’s new romance is affecting his work.

Okay, so all three of these examples sound as if affect is only used in the sense of a negative change. That isn’t always true. Check out these sentences:

  • Exercise affects your metabolism for hours afterward.
  • Pets can affect your mood and physical health.
  • My brother’s new haircut is affecting his sales performance.

Did my brother’s haircut turn him into a rock-star salesperson, or did it turn off his leads and prospects? There’s no way to be sure, as affect is a neutral verb.

Of course, most people know that alcohol impairs your ability to drive. But if you want to be super-clear to your audience, you may want to choose a more specific verb than affect.

Again, affect usually means “to alter” or “to act upon.” A great way to distinguish affect from effect is to remember that affect, alter, and act all start with “A.”

Other meanings of affect as a verb

You’re going to run across other cases where affect is a verb, but with a different meaning. In fact, you’ll see several dictionary definitions of affect. Here are a few:

  • To feign
  • To cultivate
  • To tend toward
  • To frequent

Luckily, most of these definitions aren’t all that common anymore. Just focus on the primary definition that we’ve explained in detail above.

Affect as a noun

Wait, what? That’s right: Affect can be a noun. But again, don’t worry too much about this, as you’re not likely to confuse this affect with an effect.

For one, affect as a noun is pronounced differently than the verb. The noun form has its stress on the first syllable and a short “A” sound.

Also, this word is more commonly used in the realms of medicine and psychology. The meaning of affect here is “the signs of an emotional state.”

For example, a psychiatric client may be described as having a flat affect. This means that, regardless of the client’s inner experience or feelings, they appeared to the observer to have no emotion at all.

So, if you see affect used this way, you’ll surely be able to understand the difference.

Effect

Now, is effect a verb or a noun? Well, again, it’s both. But we’re going to clarify the word for you.

Look at this headline:

“Peppa Effect: Canadian Kids Are Talking With English Accents Thanks To ‘Peppa Pig'”
HuffPost

An effect is an end or event. Here are some more examples:

  • Alcohol has an effect on your ability to drive.
  • Both humans and animals have an effect on the climate.
  • My brother’s new romance is having an effect on his work.

Do these sentences sound familiar? You got it: They’re almost identical to three of the examples for affect.

This shows that affecting something yields an effect. This pair of words is simply two sides of the same coin.

You may have noticed that using effect instead of affect lengthens these sentences unnecessarily. Choosing strong verbs is a sign of advanced writing, so using affect is theoretically the better choice. But these sentences are still correct.

Here are some more efficient examples of using effect:

  • What are the side effects of this medicine?
  • It’s a matter of cause and effect.
  • Perfumes have a bad effect on my allergies.

Again, effect usually means to an end or event. A great way to distinguish effect from affect is to remember that effect, end, and event all start with “E.”

Effect as a verb

Effect has several other definitions as a noun, but these definitions aren’t the ones that are commonly confused with affect.

The interesting thing, though, is that effect can also be a verb. This is probably the trickiest part of the whole matter.

Because effect means “to cause to exist.”

It’s okay! This isn’t exactly the same meaning as that of the verb affect. Remember, affect means “to alter” or “act upon.” In other words, “to change something,” not to cause or create it.

Look at this headline:

“Never Underestimate the Power of Young People to Effect Change”
HuffPost

Young people aren’t changing change! They’re bringing it about.

Read these other examples, and you’ll notice the difference immediately:

  • Pollution effects climate change.

Pollution affects the climate, but it doesn’t effect the climate itself. See?

Now, look at this:

  • The Boston Tea Party effected the American Revolution.

This means, as you probably know, that the Boston Tea Party came first. If the tea party had affected the revolution, the revolution would’ve already been underway.

How to use affect and effect correctly

Usually:

  • “To affect” means to change, influence, modify, or transform something.
  • An effect is a result, outcome, reaction, or product.

We know you’ve got this. Go forth and use affect and effect confidently!

For some more tricks on how to remember the difference, check out our blog post here.

How to Take Notes: The 10-Step Guide to Note-Taking (Infographic)

Have you ever taken notes during a lecture or meeting, looked at them later, and found them useless? We’ve all done it.

Even worse is when somebody asks to borrow your notes and quickly hands them back to you, saying, “Never mind, thanks.”

It’s ironic that many schools don’t give lessons on how to study or take notes effectively. These skills were addressed in an orientation class in my first year of college—which was a bit late if you ask me.

Our latest infographic, “The Ultimate Beginner’s Guide to Note-Taking,” makes up for what you may have missed. We give you tried-and-true tips that’ll help you take better notes and learn more.

See the infographic here:

How to Write Notes Infographic

Even if you’re not a complete beginner at taking notes, I’m sure you’ll find something helpful in this list.

As always, we’d love it if you’d chime in with note-taking tips of your own.

Please comment below the infographic if you have something to share.

CMOS vs. AP – Recent Changes & Comparison (Updated 1. Nov. 2021)

If you’re a student or professional writer, you’re likely familiar with English style guides. Although you learned many rights and wrongs in your English classes, not every aspect of the language is black or white.

Many style guides exist for English, and each serves a different role. Students may be familiar with APA or MLA style, which we don’t cover in this post. Nor will we cover The Gregg Reference Manual, a common resource for business writing, or British styles such as Oxford.
In this article, we’ll highlight two American style guides: The Chicago Manual of Style and the AP Stylebook. We’ll cover six categories: punctuation, capitalization, numbers, abbreviations, spelling and specific words, and formatting.

But first, find out how you can strengthen your understanding of style guides and good English.

What’s the difference between Chicago and AP?

These are two of the most popular style guides for professional writers. Since 1906, Chicago has been the go-to guide for literature. Some students use Chicago as well. In September 2017, Chicago issued its seventeenth edition.

The AP Stylebook, first published in 1953, is the bible for journalists. AP style focuses on saving space. Most web writing follows AP style.

The print version of the AP Stylebook is published every other spring. The last version was published in 2020, and the next version will be published in 2022. The digital format is updated more often.

In this post, you’ll see how Chicago compares with the most recent updates to AP style.

Guidelines versus rules

It’s important to note that these are style guides, not style rules. Consistency is the most important thing in any written piece. It’s also important to be consistent across a website or company. But in some cases, it’s appropriate to break a rule or use a less popular form, such as passive voice.

As a professional writer, you need to understand when it’s acceptable to break rules. Writing and editing aren’t like accounting. Pedantry won’t make you popular and may drive you crazy.

First, you should follow the requirements of your boss or client, even if you don’t always agree. It’s also best to follow any guidelines that were created to avoid offending readers.

You could never memorize a whole style guide, and you don’t want to follow each guideline obsessively. But your reference books will help you write in a consistent and educated way.

A word about web content

Reading web content makes learning proper English more challenging. Both US and world English are used online, and they’re different in terms of vocabulary, spelling, punctuation, and other aspects.

You’ll also see a great deal of writing by speakers of English as a second language. If these writers don’t seek editing by a native speaker of English, you’ll see errors and often a wordier approach.

Add to this the fact that many industries, companies, and brands use their own language. This includes not only jargon but also the “breaking” of certain established grammar rules.

If you’re a professional writer, you shouldn’t necessarily rely on other writers for your English education. Despite good editing and proofreading efforts, even professionally written news stories and printed books feature errors. What reading can do is show you how to craft interesting sentences and organize your own work into a cohesive and engaging piece.

So do familiarize yourself with the style guide that’s appropriate for the type of writing you do. When in doubt, consult your guide instead of blindly following somebody else’s writing.

And now, the comparison.

Punctuation

ITEM CMOS 17 AP 2020 (updated 2021)
Commas, general

(Note: Instructions on the comma are lengthy in both CMOS and AP. Refer to your style guides for a full treatment of this punctuation mark.)

Use a serial comma in all instances for clarity.

The flag of Italy is green, white, and red.

Don’t use the serial comma in simple series.

The flag of Italy is green, white and red.

Use a serial comma where required for clarity and in complex series.

I like chicken salad, egg salad, and peanut butter and jelly.

etc. / and so forth / and the like A comma is no longer required after these terms except where needed grammatically.

The array of pies, cakes, cookies, etc. made my mouth water.

BUT

When it comes to pies, cakes, cookies, etc., I simply can’t resist.

AP states that although it’s traditional to use a comma afterward, it’s somewhat acceptable to skip the second comma.

The array of pies, cakes, cookies, etc., made my mouth water.

OR

The array of pies, cakes, cookies, etc. made my mouth water.

too / either No comma is necessary before either word if the word comes at the end of a sentence.

I like old movies too.

I don’t like old movies either.

Use commas only when required for clarity.

I like old movies too.

BUT

I don’t like old movies, either color or black and white.

Participial or adverbial phrase plus conjunction The placement of the comma with a coordinating conjunction (and, but, or, etc.) varies depending on the sentence structure.

If the conjunction joins two independent clauses (complete sentences), the comma goes before the conjunction, as it would without the inserted phrase.

I was happy, but because I’d been up all night, I was also tired. (I was happy, but . . . I was also tired.)

If the words following the conjunction don’t form a complete sentence, the comma goes after the conjunction.

I was happy but, having stayed up all night, also tired. (I was happy but . . . also tired.)

No specific instructions; follow CMOS

Capitalization

ITEM CMOS 17 AP 2020 (updated 2021)
Capitalization, general

(Note: Instructions on capitalization are lengthy in both CMOS and AP. Refer to your style guides for a full treatment of capital letters.)

“In general, avoid unnecessary capitals.”

For example, there’s no reason to capitalize a spelled-out abbreviation unless it’s a proper noun.

World Health Organization (WHO)

BUT

computed tomography (CT) scan

Mid-sentence, or interpolated, questions Capitalize a question that’s included in a sentence but doesn’t require quotation marks.

She thought, Is he serious?

Same as CMOS 17

She thought, Is he serious?

Bulleted lists Items that aren’t full sentences may or may not be capitalized but be consistent. Capitalize the first word in a bulleted list, whether the item is a full sentence or not. Close with a period in both cases as well. Note that true news stories use dashes instead of bullets; bullets are more common in web writing.
Oxford shoes / Chelsea boots Capitalize the modifier.

BUT

french fries (French is a cut, not a nationality, here.)

Generation X / Generation Y / Generation Z Use an uppercase G. Use an uppercase G.
Romantic / Romanticism Use an uppercase R. romantic

BUT

Romanticism and Romantic Movement

internet Lowercase is now standard. internet
Unusual capitalization of company names, brand names, and trademarks Retain the organization’s preferred capitalization, even at the beginning of a sentence. The exception is if the name is in all lowercase letters. In this case, capitalize the word to distinguish it as a proper noun.

eBay is a great place to find bargains.

I publish my blog on WordPress.

BUT

This store sells Asap skincare. (Stylized by the brand as asap)

Capitalize brand names when they’re used. No other specific guidelines are given, but it’s best to follow Chicago’s rule on capitalizing all-lowercase names for clarity.

Numbers

ITEM CMOS 17 AP 2020 (updated 2021)
Numbers, general

(Note: Instructions on numbers are lengthy in both CMOS and AP. Refer to your style guides for a full treatment of numbers.)

Chicago’s general rule is to spell out “zero” through “one hundred.” Large round numbers are also written out.

My neighbor has two cars.

I saw ninety-nine red balloons.

There were eighty thousand people at the protest.

BUT

There were 80,112 people at the protest.

AP prescribes numerals for “10” and above. Write out “zero” through “nine.”

My neighbor has two cars.

I saw 99 red balloons.

There were 80 thousand people at the protest.

BUT

There were 80,112 people at the protest.

US phone numbers Please call (1-800) 555-1212.

OR

Please call 1-800-555-1212.

AP recommends the second example only.

Please call 1-800-555-1212.

Twenty-four-hour, or military, time A colon may be used for clarity.

The mess hall opens at 0500.

BUT

The history program started at 19:00.

No guidelines on colon usage.

The mess hall opens at 0500.

AND

The history program started at 1900.

Super Bowl No specific reference, but CMOS does state a general preference for Arabic numerals over Roman. Don’t use Roman numerals. Preferably, use the year instead of the number.

The New York Giants won the 1987 Super Bowl.

ALSO ACCEPTABLE:

The New York Giants won Super Bowl 21 in 1987.

Abbreviations

ITEM CMOS 17 AP 2020 (updated 2021)
US Use without periods as a noun as well as an adjective to refer to the United States.

The president visited US troops on Christmas.

AP still recommends U.S. for noun or adjectives, except in headlines.

The president visited U.S. troops on Christmas.

BUT

PRESIDENT VISITS US TROOPS ON CHRISTMAS

Months Spell out months where space allows. The preferred forms for abbreviations are as follows:

  • Jan.
  • Feb.
  • Mar.
  • Apr.
  • May
  • June
  • July
  • Aug.
  • Sept.
  • Oct.
  • Nov.
  • Dec.
Spell out months when using alone or with a year only. Abbreviate as follows when combining a month with a date:

  • Jan.
  • Feb.
  • March
  • April
  • May
  • June
  • July
  • Aug.
  • Sept.
  • Oct.
  • Nov.
  • Dec.

Spelling and specific words

ITEM CMOS 17 AP 2020 (updated 2021)
Spelling, general For words not treated by CMOS, refer to Webster’s Third New International Dictionary or Merriam–Webster’s Collegiate Dictionary. For words not treated by AP, refer to Webster’s New World College Dictionary.
email A hyphen is no longer required. email
decision-making Hyphenate as both noun and adjective.

He has trouble with decision-making.

Our decision-making process may take a month or more.

No specific entry in AP or Webster’s New World College Dictionary, but an entry in “Ask the Editor” states, “Use of the hyphen is far from standardized. It can be a matter of taste, judgment and style sense.”
they / their These pronouns are in transition. Don’t use either as a singular pronoun in formal writing. Recast sentences when possible to avoid the problem.

AVOID: The patient may not use their cellphone in the waiting room or exam room.

RECAST: The patient may not use his or her cellphone in the waiting room or exam room.

BETTER RECAST: Patients may not use cellphones in the waiting room or exam room.

AP supports the use of “they” as a gender-neutral pronoun when that is the preference of the person in question.
“They” is sometimes acceptable as a way of referring to someone of unknown gender, but rewriting is preferred. See CMOS guidelines at left
Walmart This topic is treated in the forums but not specifically in the text. It’s probably best to follow AP on this one. Walmart Inc.
esports No specific entry The preferred form when referring to multiplayer videogames
flyer No specific entry; Merriam–Webster suggests flier in reference to air travel and flyer in advertising. Changed from the former flier, as in frequent flyer
virtual reality Use VR if desired on second reference.
Addiction Addiction is a disease. Avoid terms that imply judgment, such as abuse, problem, alcoholic, addict, user, or abuser unless quoting a source or organization name.
LGBT / LGBTQ Both are acceptable in all instances; be consistent.
same-sex marriage Instead of gay marriage
versus / vs. / v. Spell out versus in most writing. Use vs. in headlines and other short expressions. Use v. in court cases. Spell out versus in most writing. Use vs. in headlines and other short expressions. Use v. in court cases.
breastfeed / breastfeeding / breastfed One word, no hyphen, in all forms

Formatting

ITEM CMOS 17 AP 2020 (updated 2021)
Foreign words and phrases Use italics unless an item appears in a standard English dictionary. Do not use italics for foreign proper nouns.

My ex-husband is indulging in a bit of schadenfreude.

BUT

The Swedish man couldn’t find his plånbok.

No special treatment is required if the item appears in a standard English dictionary. Otherwise, surround the word or phrase with quotation marks and supply a definition.

Bon voyage!

BUT

The Swedish man left his “plånbok,” or wallet, on the train.

Emphasizing text Italics are preferred, especially in formal prose and print. Use boldface and underscore as alternatives. Setting words in all caps isn’t recommended for formal writing. AP uses roman type only in news stories. Use your judgment when writing for the web and elsewhere, but be consistent. All caps are typically reserved for headlines, datelines, and a few other instances.

Conclusion

Both CMOS and AP are lengthy guides. If you need to consult one or both regularly, we advise you to invest in a copy. You can subscribe to CMOS and AP online or purchase print copies. If you enjoyed this brief comparison of recent changes, please pass it on and hit one of the share buttons below.

10 Commonly Confused Words

Precise word choice and syntax is important when writing for a broad audience, as it increases the potential for a greater number of readers to understand the writer’s message. Writers also need to be aware of the expectations of specific target audiences in relation to the language they use. The selected writing style, genre and/or medium will guide writers in appropriate word choice and syntax. Academic or scholarly writing, for instance, is more formal and impersonal than other styles, so the writer’s word choice and syntax needs to meet the expectations of an academic audience. Writers can improve the clarity and conciseness of their writing by adhering to the guidelines for a particular writing style and being aware of commonly confused words.

There are many pairs or groups of words in the English language that are commonly confused because they are spelt or pronounced similarly, but they have different meanings. These are called: homonyms. There are also homophones, which are words that have comparable meanings, but are not similar in how they are spelt or pronounced. When these words are used incorrectly in a sentence they can cause misunderstanding.

Listed below are ten commonly confused words in the English language.

Homonyms

Who or whom

These two words are confusing because they are both used to describe actions related to people. The easiest way to remember how to use each of these words correctly is to use “who” when the person is doing the action and “whom” when the action is being done to a person.

Affect or effect

“Affect” is to cause change and “effect” is the result of that change. For example, intoxication affects driving ability. There are many harmful effects of drinking and driving.

Although or while

These two words are often used interchangeably as linking words to show relationships between ideas, but to ensure clarity for the reader,  “although” should used to contrast two ideas, and “while” should be used to indicate two opposing periods of time.

Adverse or averse

“Adverse” means unfavourable, harmful or antagonistic and is often used to describe conditions or effects. “Averse” is almost exclusively used to describe a strong oppositional opinion.

Accept or except

“Accept” means to agree or willingly take something that is offered. “Except” suggests exclusion or not belonging to the group.

Homophones

That or which

“That” is used when what follows is necessary to understand the meaning of the sentence.  “Which” is unrestrictive meaning that the information that follows is an aside or nonessential.

Infer or imply

“Imply” is when a person provides hints or makes suggestions when they construct texts, and “infer” is when readers deduce meaning from texts.

Whether or if

“Whether”, or sometimes “whether or not”, is used to indicate a choice between alternatives. “If” is often used conditionally, meaning that whatever follows the condition is dependent.

Presently or currently

“Presently” means soon and “currently” means now. In British English, presently can mean at present. This isn’t the case in American English, where – in most cases – it means “shortly”. Presently can have that meaning in British English, too. If you are based in the U.S. and want to say that something is happening right now, it’s better to use “now” or “currently”.

Since or because

“Since” refers to the time between the present moment and the referenced past event. “Because” is used to demonstrate the causation or causal relationships.

Additional resources

Two essential desk reference titles that offer clarification on confusing words are: The Right Word: Making Sense of the Words That Confuse by Elizabeth Dorothy Morrison and The Careful Writer by Theodore M. Bernstein.

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