grammar

What Is An Oxford Comma?

There is a lot of confusion when it comes to the Oxford comma and whether or not it should be used. To make matters worse, there was a time when school children were taught they should never use the Oxford comma. That’s no longer the case today.

While Oxford commas are strictly optional, different style guides will tell you different things about them. Simply put, an Oxford comma is a comma that comes before a conjunction such as “and,” “but,” or “if.” Journalists often dispense with it, but doing so can make their writing more difficult to understand.

I had a client who queried my use of this useful little punctuation mark for any reason, but when I showed him what consequences could befall if it was omitted (and proved that it really is acceptable to use it) he had to give in. Actually, he told me he was quite relieved because his boss often used it and he had been forcibly restraining himself from saying anything about the ‘error.’

Can You Put a Comma Before ‘And’?

Not only can you place a comma before an ‘and,’ sometimes it’s important you do. Let’s look at some of the ways an Oxford comma can help to prevent you from saying something outrageous you didn’t really mean. Take a look at this sentence:

“I called my parents, my counselor and my teacher.”

There’s nothing wrong with it, but if I didn’t know you, I might think that your counselor and your teacher were your parents. Are you confused? Well, let’s say your parents are called John and Mary. How would you say you spoke to them? You’d probably say:

“I spoke to my parents, John and Mary.”

Do you see where the comma is? Now let’s assume that John and Mary aren’t your parents, but that you spoke to them as well as speaking to your parents.

“I spoke to my parents, John, and Mary.”

In this sentence, it’s an Oxford comma which clarifies exactly who you happen to be talking to.

The lack of an Oxford comma might add some extra confusion as to who you are talking to:

“I had fish, coffee and dessert.”

“I had fish, coffee, and desert”

If we were to split hairs, my first sentence could be me talking to my coffee and dessert in order to tell them I had fish. The second example is clearer and shows I had all three of these things and I’m not actually talking to any of them.

If you aren’t convinced yet, here are some real-life examples when journalists probably should have used the Oxford comma when writing their article headlines.

“World leaders at Mandela tribute, Obama-Castro handshake and same sex marriage date set.”

The lack of a comma is the difference from worldwide breaking news and a recap of what happened that particular day. Obama to marry Castro? Who would have thought it? A simple Oxford comma would have eliminated any confusion.

Here’s another example. The Times of London reported that Peter Ustinov went on a tour and met a number of interesting people – or perhaps he met a single one who had habits we never knew about:

“Highlights of his global tour included encounters with Nelson Mandela, an 800-year-old demi-god and a dildo collector.”

We always knew Mandela was old when he passed away, but nobody knew he was 800 years old, and he had an affinity for collecting sex toys. The insertion of the Oxford comma would have kept many people from taking a double-take when reading that sentence.

There are those who hate the Oxford comma. The AP style guide says that the serial comma or Oxford comma is wrong. Other style guides say that it’s OK and that it can eliminate confusion as to your meaning. Generally speaking, there is no right or wrong answer to this question. While some people get quite passionate about arguing for or against this little punctuation mark coming before a conjunction, it’s not worth getting worked up about either way in most situations. What’s important to remember is there are instances where adding it can eliminate ambiguity.

(Photo courtesy of Dave Bezaire)

What is a Pronoun? The 10 Types

If you want to become a better writer there are a number of steps you can take like improving your vocabulary. It also helps to have a good grasp of grammar, and what may initially seem to be simple isn’t always so. For example, can you guess how many pronouns are in the following sentence?

“I bought all of these myself, so these are mine; they are my things!”

If you were able to find seven pronouns, then you found them all. If you found less than seven, you can check the answer by looking at the words below in bold.

I bought all of these myself, so these are mine; they are my things!

Yes, each word in bold is a pronoun. Remember, a pronouns relates to a noun, and that’s why the word “noun” is inside “pronoun.” When you don’t want to or can’t use a noun, you choose a pronoun.

Different Types of Pronouns

Since English is a complex language, there are different classes of pronouns. The most important ones are personal pronouns. “I” is the most common example of this. Then there are “we, you, he/she, it, they.” They refer to humans, or living beings such as animals, so they are personal. I the simplest terms, they deal with persons.

“Myself” can be either an intensive pronoun or a reflexive pronoun. In the sentence above, it’s intensive because the speaker wants to emphasize that he alone bought the items. And since “myself” actually refers to “I,” not a proper noun, you can see that pronouns sometimes refer to other pronouns. In the sentence below, “myself” is reflexive:

“I gave myself a good lecture because I was disappointed in my work.”

The person doing the action and the one receiving the action are the same, so it’s a reflexive act and a reflexive pronoun. All pronouns that end with “self” or “selves” must be either reflexive or intensive, depending on how they are used.

Reciprocal pronouns involve actions or feelings that happen between two people. For example:

They gave each other Christmas presents.
They like one another so much that they are never apart.

The two most common ones are, naturally, “each other” and “one another.”

Possessive pronouns are easy to understand. They show who owns or who has something. “My, your, his, her, its, our, their” are possessive. Would you say: “This is Mandy, David, Sue and Lisa’s house?” No. You would say, “This is their house.” In this way, possessive pronouns are useful and convenient. Absolute possessive pronouns are similar: “mine, yours, his, hers, ours, theirs.” The difference between the two types is that you cannot use a possessive alone, but you can use absolute possessive alone.

1. The telescope is my property.
2. The telescope is mine.

In the first example, a noun must go with “my.” The second sentence shows that “mine” doesn’t need one.

You use a relative pronoun when you want to introduce more information or another idea.

“The park, which is far from the city, has a zoo with African animals.”

Here, “which” is relative. “That, who, whom, whose, where” are also relative pronouns.

When you ask a question, the first word is often an interrogative pronoun.

Which horse runs the fastest?
How do you wash the dishes so well?

As you can see, “which” is either relative or interrogative. How you use a pronoun can determine what type it is.

Another issue that makes pronouns a little more complicated is a word like “how.” It doesn’t refer to any noun. It is used to ask about a way or method or cause.

When you read or hear “this, that, these, those,” you have an example of demonstrative pronouns. They show people exactly what is being talked about.

“This table is worth thousands, but that one in the corner is worthless.”

Finally, we have indefinite pronouns. They aren’t like the other types because they don’t refer to any specific person or object. “All, some, any, none, no one” are examples of this. When you use these pronouns, you are speaking or writing in a general way. These words can refer to many possible people

All the people of the world want peace.
Some of them love to laugh, but others are very serious.

As you can see, answering the question, “What is a pronoun?” is a lot more complicated than it first appears. This article should have given you a good basic understanding of what a pronoun is, and the different types of pronouns which exist in the English language.

(Photo courtesy of Philippe Put)

When to use ‘was’ versus ‘were’

English can be difficult, especially when it comes to words that can be easily confused. A couple of examples would be who vs whom and further vs farther. Another combo that can get confusing is was vs were.

There are several reasons why you might be struggling to decide whether you should be using “was” or “were” in a sentence. The simplest of these is the conjugation of the singular and plural forms of the past tense of “to be.” While this can cause minor problems to those learning English as a second language as they study, first language English speakers usually have few problems with this. The most common cause of debate and confusion is the use of “were” instead of “was” in the subjunctive mood (We’ll explain that below if you aren’t sure what subjunctive mood is.). We’ll cover both past and subjunctive mood topics in this article, and you’ll soon see just how simple it all is.

Singular and Plural

As we’ve observed, this is the easiest of the choices you need to make, but it also gives rise to the problems that so many people have when they begin to use the subjunctive mood.

Singular: I was, he was, she was, it was – BUT you were. (Just to make things more fun!)

Plural: It’s always ‘were’, regardless of whether we’re talking about “they,” “we” or “you.” So far, so easy! But now we’ll examine how this relates to one of the most common errors in spoken or written English: the choice of “was” instead of “were” in the subjunctive mood.

If I were / was a rich man – the famous subjunctive mood

The subjunctive mood is used to describe or speculate on a hypothetical situation, and you’ll hear people using both ‘”was” and “were” in this context. But only one of these is correct. Whenever we’re talking about something that isn’t a reality at the moment, we discard “was” and choose “were” instead. It doesn’t matter whether we are referring to a single person or a group of people. As soon as we cross the border between reality and speculation, “were” is the only word to choose. For example

I was rich and I owned a house at the seaside.
If I were rich, I would have owned a house at the seaside.

He was the captain of the team and he chose a different strategy.
If he were captain of the team, he would have chosen a different strategy.

In each of the pairs of sentences above, the first one refers to something that actually happened in the past, and the word “was” is the correct choice. The second sentence is a wish or a speculation – it refers to an event that did not actually happen, and “were” is the correct choice.

They were the winning team, so they celebrated their victory.
If they were the winning team, they would celebrate their victory.

As we can see, the subjunctive mood doesn’t result in any change in word choice in this example. No matter how many people you are referring to, the subjunctive mood calls for the word “were.” If you’ve been prone to saying the incorrect “I wish I was,” “If he was” or “I wish she was” instead of the correct ‘I wish I were,” “If he were” or “I wish she were,” it will be easy to make the necessary adaptation and correct your grammar.

Look out for the subjunctive mood. As soon as something is a wish or a hypothetical (if) situation, you will always choose “were” over “was.”

It’s a common grammar mistake. In spoken as well as written English, you’ll find that just about everyone from plumbers to presidents is guilty of this mistake. Of course, when presidents make this error, those who know better will laugh at them, so if you’re hoping that what you say will be taken seriously, it’s worth learning when to use “were” instead of “was.” After all, once you understand the basic rules, it’s quite easy.

Further Away versus Farther Away

There are times when English can be confusing, even to native speakers who learned the language from the cradle. One of the common areas of confusion arises when we have to choose between two words which seem to be almost the same. Learning to properly understand the different uses of different words is one aspect of improving your vocabulary.

For example, the question whether to use “further away” or “farther away” can be confusing. They look very similar, and their meanings are similar too. When we’re talking, few people would even notice the difference, but when we’re writing, we need to be more precise and choose our words carefully. How will we know when to use “further” and when to use “farther?” Luckily, there’s a very simple way to work it out when you proofread your writing. It’s the difference between literal distance and figurative distance.

Distances can be literal or figurative

When we refer to distance, it can be either literal or figurative. For example:

“How much farther will we have to drive to reach our hotel?”

In this example, the person asking the question is looking for a literal distance. They want to know how many miles they will have to travel to reach their destination. “Farther” is completely correct in this context.

In the following example, our distance is figurative:

“Would you like me to explain this further?”

Obviously, the answer here can’t be “Five miles” because we aren’t looking at a literal distance.

The good news is there’s a simple and useful trick to remembering the difference. To make your life easier, you can remember the correct use for “farther” by looking at the first syllable, “Far.” Now think of all the distance measurements. There are miles, kilometers, centimeters, inches and so on. Would you associate these measurements with what you are going to say? If so, then “farther” is the word you should be choosing in order to be 100% correct.

Now consider “further” as being an “add-on”:

“You can have a further $5.”
“It will be a further year before you finish your studies.”
“I was further insulted by her rude behavior on Sunday.”

It tells you that something extra is going to be added.

Interchangeability: just to make you more confused

Now that we have a clear explanation of when to use the word “farther” rather than “further” it’s time to muddy the waters a little. Although you shouldn’t use “farther” at times when “further” is the more appropriate choice, there are times when you can use “further” instead of “farther.” There are even some who advise you to choose “further” when in doubt.

People have been using these two words interchangeably for a long time, and in other parts of the world where English is spoken, “further” is used much more often, while few people use “farther” at all. But if you want to fit in with accepted modern American grammar, it’s important to remember the simple distinction between the literal distance “farther” and the figurative distance “further.” If you are writing a report or an essay, you need to choose the correct word, and the usages we’ve just discussed are accepted as correct in both the Chicago Manual of Style and the AP Stylebook.

But there are still cases in American grammar in which we will find that the two words are interchangeable. For instance:

“How much farther do you have to read?” and “How much further do you have to read?” would both be correct. After all, you could be asking someone how many pages they still need to read to finish the book, or you could be asking if they will have to read more books or more chapters to get the information they need. In the first example, you’re asking for a literal distance in the number of pages. In the second example, you’re asking for a figurative distance. As with so many other grammar rules, context is very important.

Let’s keep it simple. If reading this has made you more confused than ever, then just hold onto this thought:

“Farther” is a distance and “further” is something extra. How easy is that?

25 Ways to Improve Your Writing Vocabulary

A great vocabulary is just one essential tool in a writer’s toolbox, along with punctuation, grammar, and many others. Vocabulary can make your writing more powerful and more effective and help you say exactly what you mean. This indispensable tool will help you choose the best word for every job and avoid vague words that do not give your readers a good sense of your meaning.

Building your vocabulary is one of the easiest ways to improve the power of your writing and make any writing task that much easier, as you will have several synonyms in your repertoire to pull from every time. Developing your vocabulary need not be difficult or painful. Here are 25 ways you can improve your writing vocabulary every day.

Use New Words

Use a word immediately after you learn it. Try to make a game out of using a new word as soon as you learn it. Every day, try to slip in a new word into the conversation, a journal entry, an assignment or an email to a friend. Do this as often as possible, and repeat the word to yourself.

Read Every Day

Once you’re out of school, word drills and assigned reading become things of the past. While these were tools for building your vocabulary repertoire while you were young, it doesn’t mean you should abandon reading. Try to read a well-written and edited essay, magazine article, book or news article every day. Nonfiction and technical books will quickly teach you new ways to think and speak with words you may be unfamiliar with, but any type of reading will help you along.

Learn Roots

Learn the roots of words. Most words in the English language are built from a common root, prefix, and suffix, usually with an origin in the Greek or Latin language. Once you learn a root, you’ll begin to understand more words that use the same root. For example, -duc- (Latin root word) means to lead or to make, such as in the words produce or deduce.

Use a Thesaurus

Keep a thesaurus handy. As you write, keep a thesaurus handy and use it when you find yourself using a word too often, or using a word that you know doesn’t quite convey the right meaning. This will help you better express yourself, and you’ll also learn a new word in the process.

Develop Practical Vocabulary

This means you should start by learning words that express what’s important to you for the task at hand. A good example of this is learning trade language or words you use often in a hobby or vocation. Rather than immediately turning to cliches or jargon that’s tossed around, look for clearer words to express to peers what you’re writing about.

Learn New Words Every Day

To improve your vocabulary quickly, make an effort to learn at least one new word every single day. There are plenty of ways to do this, such as a Word of the Day calendar or email list, or simply picking a word from a thesaurus or dictionary.

Look up Words You Don’t Know

How often do you come across words that are unfamiliar as you read? Don’t just gloss over them; take the time to look them up, and if you don’t have the time right then, write them down and look them up later.

Keep a Journal

Journaling won’t just help you develop your writing style, it will also help you improve your vocabulary. Try to use new or interesting words you’ve learned recently into a journal entry for the day or the week.

Identify Empty Words

You’re probably familiar with empty words in your speech (such as “uh” or “um”), but your writing probably has empty words as well. Look for these empty words in your writing that do not offer any substance to your reader and replace them with something more appropriate. The same principle applies to phrases and sentences, so make sure that you haven’t used six or seven phrases to say something that could be better communicated in one sentence filled with carefully-chosen words.

Diversify Your Reading List

If you tend to read the same sort of things day in and day out, you may not be exposing yourself to a wide enough range of vocabulary. Diversify the topics you read to include natural science, Shakespeare, contemporary literature, politics, history, philosophy or any other topics you think you may enjoy.

Do Word Puzzles

Word puzzles in the newspaper or a magazine aren’t just a fun way to fill time, they’re also perfect for boosting your working vocabulary. Crossword puzzles are a challenge that get your brain working hard to search your memory for words you do know but don’t use, and this can help you move words from your memory banks into your working set of vocabulary which will come across in your writing.

Try Word Board Games

There are plenty of word games on the market designed to improve vocabulary and language skills without being a bore. Some of these games you may have played as a child, so it’s time to break them out again and get to “work.” If you have a friend who could also use some help — or someone with a great vocabulary you think will challenge you — invite them over for a game night.

Practice New Words in Divergent Ways

It takes between 10 and 20 repetitions to make a new word a part of your vocabulary. To help the word settle into your mind and memory, write it down (both the definition and a sentence you make up using the word), use it in conversation, include it in an email or any other way you can think of.

Make up Associations

Start by saying the new word aloud, then relate it to a word you already know. A good example of this is gargantuan, which means “very large” or “gigantic.” Say a sequence aloud: small, medium, large, very large, gargantuan. Then list things you think are gargantuan.

Use Mnemonics

Mnemonic techniques are memory tricks you can use to remember new words. You may remember a word by sounding it out and thinking of a funny sentence that matches the meaning, such as turning egregious (extremely bad) into “Don’t let that smelly rotten egg reach us!”

Visualize New Words

Research shows that visualization is a great way to remember new words and their meanings. A good example of this is the word stratovolcano, which is a high, pointed mountain with a violent explosion. One way to remember this meaning is the fact that the prefix “strato” sounds like “straight-oh,” which may make you think of a straight ruler or a “straight-o-volcano,” which describes the word’s definition.

Make Your Own Vocabulary Tests

Keep a list of the new words you learn each week and incorporate into writing and conversation. At the end of each week, make yourself a quiz using the words to cement them in your memory.

Make Synonym Word Lists

Do you find yourself turning to the same word again and again in your writing? Grab a piece of paper and write it at the top. Next, brainstorm or use a thesaurus to generate a list of ten to twenty new words you can use instead. You can keep these lists in a vocabulary notebook and add to them whenever you learn a new synonym.

Take a Writing Course

There are plenty of online courses as well as in-person classes you can attend to boost your writing vocabulary and learn how to use new words correctly. Try to find a self-paced course that uses assignments and quizzes to hep you increase fluency and brush up on your writing skills. Some classes are aimed at essay writing or creative writing, so you can find a class that will help you improve the style you need the most help with.

Edit Your Own Writing

After you finish writing, be your own editor and go though the piece with a fine-toothed comb to identify overused and nondescript words with something more precise or colorful. Editing is an important process for spotting writing errors, but it’s also great for improving the tone, style, and clarity of your writing. It might help to read the sentences aloud, then note any lack of precision. Search through your memory for more descriptive words, or consult a thesaurus if you need to.

As you replace words, remember that using a large number of complex words won’t necessarily clarify the meaning, and it may just make your writing more pompous. Ask yourself, “Do I know a better word to use instead?” You may replace “use” with “acquire” or “obtain,” or “do” with “perform.”

Move Words from Comprehensive to Expressive Vocabulary

You actually have two types of vocabulary: one is a much larger set of words you understand, even if only vaguely, and the other is a smaller set of words you actually use to express yourself. Moving words from your comprehensive, but passive vocabulary, to your active, expressive vocabulary is easier than you think. To do this, you’ll need to know how to define, pronounce and spell the words. Say them out loud and use them at every opportunity to move them into your active set.

Ask for Feedback

Do you think your writing could use some help? If you’re struggling with your written vocabulary, try asking someone else for help. A second set of eyes can offer a great deal of insight and spot problems you may not notice yourself, including poor word choice. Don’t be afraid to ask a friend, teacher, co-worker or someone online to review your writing for feedback on your vocabulary.

Carry a Dictionary and Thesaurus with You

How often do you find yourself with free time and nothing to do? Carry a pocket thesaurus or dictionary with you and you’ll find time to beef up your vocabulary while you’re waiting for an appointment, commuting to work or waiting for a bus. Whenever you have a few minutes to spare, read a page or two and learn a new word to add to your writing. It’s also a great idea to look up obscure words you don’t quite grasp that come to you on the fly as you go about your day. You can also use the dictionary or thesaurus to look up unfamiliar words you come across in your daily life.

Use College Preparation Tests

College prep tests that use SAT and ACT-type words are a great way to take your writing to the next level. This form of advanced study will challenge your mind and give you a new set of words to use that are practical and offer your writing the clarity it needs. You’ll also get the chance to brush up on the most important Latin and Greek roots and get a new set of words with activities to help move them into your active vocabulary set.

Play Games

There are tons of non-board games that will help you improve your writing vocabulary while you have fun. Try downloading fun word games onto your phone or computer so you can get some practice while you unwind after a busy day. Some games are designed to build vocabulary skills, but there are plenty of others that will help you practice spelling, phonics, and even typing skills. There are even some designed for college students to prepare for testing and vocabulary-rich exams.

Hopefully, this list has given you an excellent place to start to build your vocabulary a bit at a time. If you think about it, there are opportunities all around you to develop this important skill, so spend time every day reading and listening to take in new words and then develop a system to incorporate these new words in your writing and speech. Before long, you’ll find your vocabulary has grown to a new level and your writing has gained the clarity you need with an ease you didn’t think possible.

Author: Jovell Alingod

(Image courtesy of Michael Coghlan)